Primary liver cancer is an aggressive, lethal malignancy that ranks as the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Its 5-year mortality rate is estimated to be more than 95%. This significant low survival rate is due to poor diagnosis, which can be referred to as the lack of sufficient and early-stage detection methods. Many liver cancer-associated non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been extensively examined to serve as promising biomarkers for precise diagnostics, prognostics, and the evaluation of the therapeutic progress. For the simple, rapid, and selective ncRNA detection, various nanomaterial-enhanced biosensors have been developed based on electrochemical, optical, and electromechanical detection methods. This review presents ncRNAs as the potential biomarkers for the early-stage diagnosis of liver cancer. Moreover, a comprehensive overview of recent developments in nanobiosensors for liver cancer-related ncRNA detection is provided.

Ng, Po Yan. / Thesis submitted in: November 2006. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 109-120). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgement --- p.i / Abstract --- p.ii / 摘要 --- p.iii / Table of Contents --- p.iv / List of Figures --- p.viii / List of Tables --- p.xi / List of Abbreviation --- p.xii / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- A General Introduction to the Development and Clinical Activities of Platinum Drugs --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Platinum Drugs used in a Clinical Setting --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Platinum Drugs under Clinical Trials --- p.5 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Platinum Compounds with Dual Mechanisms --- p.7 / Chapter 1.2 --- Platinum Drug Antitumor Mechanism --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3 --- Limitations of Platinum Drugs --- p.12 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Toxicity --- p.12 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Drug Resistance or Cross Resistance --- p.15 / Chapter 1.3.2.1 --- Reduced Drug Accumulation or Increased Drug Efflux --- p.16 / Chapter 1.3.2.2 --- Drug Inactivation --- p.18 / Chapter 1.3.2.3 --- Enhanced DNA Repair --- p.19 / Chapter 1.4 --- Why Combinational Therapy? --- p.21 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- Antimetabolites --- p.20 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- Topoisomerase Inhibitors --- p.22 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- Tubulin-Active Antimitotic Agents --- p.24 / Chapter 1.4.4 --- Demethylcantharidin as a potential candidate for drug combination --- p.28 / Chapter 1.5 --- Study Objectives --- p.31 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Materials and Methods / Chapter 2.1 --- Cell Lines --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2 --- Cancer Cell Preparation / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Chemicals and Reagents --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Cell Culture Practice --- p.34 / Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- Subcultures --- p.35 / Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- Cryopreservation --- p.37 / Chapter 2.2.2.3 --- Thawing Cryopreservated Cells --- p.38 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Development of Drug-Resistant Cell Lines --- p.39 / Chapter 2.3 --- Growth Inhibition Assay / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Evaluation of Cytotoxicity in vitro --- p.40 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Drug Pretreatment --- p.43 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Drug Pre-sensitization with Concurrent Treatment --- p.44 / Chapter 2.4 --- Calculations for Drug Combinations --- p.46 / Chapter 2.5 --- Statistical Analysis --- p.49 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Results and Discussions / Chapter 3.1 --- In vitro Cytotoxicity and Evaluation of Drug Resistance --- p.50 / Chapter 3.2 --- Role of Leaving Ligand in a Platinum Complex --- p.58 / Chapter 3.3 --- Priority in Selecting the Most Effective Drug Combination --- p.66 / Chapter 3.4 --- Drug Combination Studies / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Drug Combination Prescreening --- p.68 / Chapter 3.4.1.1 --- Comparison of the effectiveness of the three Drug Combinations --- p.72 / Chapter 3.4.1.2 --- Rationale for Drug Combination Studies presented in Section 3.4.2 & 3.4.3 --- p.73 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Drug Pre-sensitization Studies in Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines --- p.74 / Chapter 3.4.2.1 --- Comparison of Drug Pre-sensitization Treatment in Sensitive Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines --- p.84 / Chapter 3.4.2.2 --- Comparison of Drug Pre-sensitization Treatment in Sensitive and Oxaliplatin Resistant HCT116 Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines --- p.87 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Drug Pre-sensitization Studies in Liver Cancer Cell Lines --- p.89 / Chapter 3.4.3.1 --- Comparison of Drug Pre-sensitization Treatment in Sensitive Liver Cancer Cell Lines --- p.99 / Chapter 3.4.3.2 --- Comparison of Drug Pre-sensitization Treatment in Sensitive and Cisplatin Resistant SK-Hepl Liver Cancer Cell Line --- p.101 / Chapter 3.5 --- Possible Explanation to the Observed Drug Combination Effect --- p.103 / Chapter 3.6 --- General Protocols for Drug Combinations --- p.105 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Conclusions / Reference --- p.109 / Appendices --- p.121 / Chapter I a. --- "Raw Data of Pre-screening for HCT116 (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.122 / Chapter I b. --- "Raw Data of Pre-screening for HCT116 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.123 / Chapter II a. --- "Raw Data of Pre-screening for SK-Hepl (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.124 / Chapter II b. --- "Raw Data of Pre-screening for SK-Hepl ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.125 / Chapter III a. i) --- "Isobolograms for HCT116 (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.126 / Chapter III a. ii) --- "Raw Data for HCT116 (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.127 / Chapter III b. i) --- "Isobolograms for HCT116 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.128 / Chapter III b. ii) --- "Raw Data for HCT116 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.129 / Chapter IV a. i) --- "Isobolograms for HCT1160xaR (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.130 / Chapter IV a. ii) --- "Raw Data for HCT1160xaR (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.131 / Chapter IV b. i) --- "Isobolograms for HCT1160xaR ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.132 / Chapter IV b. ii) --- "Raw Data for HCT1160xaR ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.133 / Chapter V a. i) --- "Isobolograms for HT29 (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.134 / Chapter V a. ii) --- "Raw Data for HT29 (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.135 / Chapter V b. i) --- "Isobolograms for HT29 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.136 / Chapter V b. ii) --- "Raw Data for HT29 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.137 / Chapter VI a. i) --- Isobolograms for Hep G2 (Cisplatin and [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2]) --- p.138 / Chapter VI a. ii) --- Raw Data for Hep G2 (Cisplatin and [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2]) --- p.139 / Chapter VI b. i) --- "Isobolograms for Hep G2 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.140 / Chapter VI b. ii) --- "Raw Data for Hep G2 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.141 / Chapter VII a. i) --- "isobolograms for SK Hep 1 (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.142 / Chapter VII a. ii) --- "Raw Data for SK Hep 1 (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.143 / Chapter VII b.i) --- "Isobolograms for SK Hep 1 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.144 / Chapter VII b. ii) --- "Raw Data for SK Hep 1 ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.145 / Chapter VIII a. i) --- "Isobolograms for SK Hep ICisR (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.146 / Chapter VIII a. ii) --- "Raw Data for SK Hep ICisR (Cisplatin, [Pt(DMC)(NH3)2] and Pt(DMC)(NH2CH3)2])" --- p.147 / Chapter VIII b. i) --- "Isobolograms for SK Hep ICisR ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.148 / Chapter VIII b. ii) --- "Raw Data for SK Hep ICisR ([Pt(DMC)(R,R-DACH)] and Oxaliplatin)" --- p.149

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third commonest cancer worldwide. However HCC is considered to be highly resistant to chemotherapy. Gene therapies aimed to regulate Bd-2 proteins may sensitize HCC cells to chemotherapy. Studies have demonstrated that Bid/tBid are crucial in hepatocyte apoptosis. Bid also plays important roles in the development and chemotherapeutic sensitivity of HCC. The objective of this study is to test effect of Ad/AFPtBid and chemotherapeutic agents in combination on an orthotopic HCC model. / In conclusion, (1) Ad/AFPtBid can specifically target and effectively suppress the AFP-producing HCC. (2) Ad/AFPtBid can significantly sensitize HCC to 5-FU, their combination can significantly increase the anti-tumor effectiveness. (3) Ad/AFPtBid shows little toxicity in vivo. (4) The complementary effect of tBid and 5-FU on different phases of the cell cycle may explain the better therapeutic result if both are used to treat HCC. (5) The elucidation of phase specific effect of tBid points to a possible therapeutic option that combines tBid with different phase specific agents to treat HCC. / It is well established that many apoptosis inducers act in a cell cycle-specific fashion. This leads us to hypothesize that tBid might have phase specific effect. So, we tested the susceptibility of Hep3B cells at 00/01, S or G2/M phases to tBid. The results revealed that tBid significantly reduced Hep3B cells in G0/G1 phase, increased cells in G2/M phase. On the contrary, 5-FU arrested Hep3B cells in G0/G1 phase, and significantly reduced cells in G2/M phase. The levels of cell cycle-related proteins were altered in line with the result of the cell cycle. This suggests Hep3B cells in G0/G1 phase may be more susceptible to tBid. The complementary effects tBid and 5-FU on different phases of the cell cycle may explain the better therapeutic result if both are used to treat HCC. / The mice bearing orthotopic HCC tumors were treated with Ad/AFPtBid alone or in combination with 5-FU/Dox. Serum AFP levels were measured to mornitor tumor progression. The mice were killed four weeks after treatment. Liver tissues were subjected to immunohistochemical staining of proliferation cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and TUNEL staining. Another batch of mice was observed for survival rate over a six month period. In addition, possible side effects of Ad/AFPtBid were tested in BALB/c mice. Results demonstrated that Ad/AFPtBid significantly inhibited Hep3B tumor growth. The combination of Ad/AFPtBid with 5-FU was more effective in tumor regression than either agent alone. However, the combination of Ad/AFPtBid with Dox treatment failed to demonstrated better effect than Dox treatment alone because the mice that received Dox exhibited serious weight loss. Tumor tissues from Ad/AFPtBid alone or combination treatment groups showed a decrease in cells positive for PCNA, and an increase in apoptosis by TUNEL staining, indicating that Ad/AFPtBid induced tumor regression through its pro-apoptotic effect. Inflammatory cell infiltration was also increased. Furthermore, Ad/AFPtBid did not suppress the hepatic tumor formed by non-AFP producing SK-HEP-1 or DLD-1. Finally, Ad/AFPtBid and 5-FU in combination results in better survival rate. No acute toxic effect of Ad/AFPtBid was observed. / Ma, Shihong. / "December 2009." / Adviser: CHEN Gong George. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 72-01, Section: B, page: . / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 114-138). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

Background & Aims: Despite advances in surgical care and chemotherapeutic regimens, the five-year survival rate for Stage IV Hepatoblastoma (HB), the predominant pediatric liver tumor, remains at 27%. YAP1 and β-Catenin co-activation occurs in 80% of children’s HB; however, a lack of conditional genetic models precludes exploration of tumor maintenance and therapeutic targets. Thus, the clinical need for a targeted therapy remains unmet. Given the predominance of YAP1 and β-catenin activation in children’s tumors, I sought to evaluate YAP1 as a therapeutic target in HB. Approach & Results: Herein, I engineered the first conditional murine model of HB using hydrodynamic injection to deliver transposon plasmids encoding inducible YAP1S127A, constitutive β-CateninDelN90, and a luciferase reporter to murine liver. Tumor regression was evaluated using in vivo bioluminescent imaging, and tumor landscape characterized using RNA sequencing, ATAC sequencing and DNA foot-printing. Here I show that YAP1 withdrawal in mice mediates >90% tumor regression with survival for 230+ days. Mechanistically, YAP1 withdrawal promotes apoptosis in a subset of tumor cells and in remaining cells induces a cell fate switch driving therapeutic differentiation of HB tumors into Ki-67 negative “hbHep cells.” hbHep cells have hepatocyte-like morphology and partially restored mature hepatocyte gene expression. YAP1 withdrawal drives formation of hbHeps by modulating liver differentiation transcription factor (TF) occupancy. Indeed, tumor-derived hbHeps, consistent with their reprogrammed transcriptional landscape, regain partial hepatocyte function and can rescue liver damage in mice. Conclusions: YAP1 withdrawal, without modulation of oncogenic β-Catenin, significantly regresses hepatoblastoma, providing the first in vivo data to support YAP1 as a therapeutic target for HB. Modulating YAP1 expression alone is sufficient to drive long-term regression in hepatoblastoma because it promotes cell death in a subset of tumor cells and modulates transcription factor occupancy to reverse the fate of residual tumor cells to mimic functional hepatocytes.

L'objectif principal de cette thèse est de faire progresser le domaine de l'imagerie quantitative par ultrasons (QUS) et de la viscoélastographie par ondes de cisaillement (SWVE) pour l'évaluation du cancer du foie, en particulier pour différencier les lésions bénignes et malignes. Cet objectif est atteint grâce à trois études ciblées. La première étude améliore les capacités de diagnostic de QUS en développant des cartes de pente du coefficient d'atténuation local (LACS) régularisées sans fantôme (PF-R). Les méthodes traditionnelles nécessitant des fantômes de référence sont limitées par l'hypothèse de vitesses sonores comparables entre les fantômes et les tissus et par l'inconvénient d'acquérir des données à partir des deux. La méthodologie PF-R proposée élimine le besoin de fantômes d'étalonnage, normalise la fréquence et la profondeur sans sacrifier la précision et étend l'applicabilité aux tissus non homogènes. Les principales modifications comprennent l'interpolation linéaire du spectre de puissance, l'assouplissement des hypothèses de diffraction et la restriction adaptative de fréquence. Testée sur divers fantômes imitant les tissus et sur des ensembles de données hépatiques humaines, la méthode démontre sa robustesse et son potentiel pour améliorer la précision diagnostique de la stéatose hépatique et des tumeurs. La deuxième étude aborde les limites de l'échographie en mode B (US) dans la détection et la différenciation des nodules hépatiques en utilisant l'imagerie QUS LACS. L'échographie en mode B traditionnelle est souvent confrontée à une faible sensibilité en présence de foie gras ou de cirrhose. L'imagerie LACS, fournissant une caractérisation tissulaire supplémentaire sans agents de contraste, améliore la visibilité des nodules et les performances diagnostiques. L'étude a été menée sur 97 patients (âge : 62 ans ± 13) présentant 100 nodules hépatiques focaux (57% malins et 43% bénins). L'imagerie LACS a démontré un rapport contraste-bruit (CNR) supérieur à celui de l'US en mode B (12.3 dB, p<0.0001). Avec un seuil LACS de 0.94 dB/cm/MHz, la technique a atteint une sensibilité de 0.83 (IC – intervalle de confiance : 0.74-0.89) et une spécificité de 0.82 (IC : 0.73-0.88). Les valeurs moyennes du LACS étaient significativement plus élevées dans les nodules malins (1.28 ± 0.27 dB/cm/MHz) que dans les nodules bénins (0.98 ± 0.19 dB/cm/MHz, p<0.0001), permettant une classification plus précise avec une aire sous la courbe caractéristique (AUC) de 0.93 pour les nodules malins (IC : 0.88-0.97). La troisième étude examine l'application du SWVE au diagnostic du cancer du foie, en se concentrant sur la vitesse des ondes de cisaillement (SWS) et l'atténuation des ondes de cisaillement (SWA). Bien que le SWVE se soit révélé prometteur dans l'évaluation de la fibrose et de la stéatose hépatique, son utilisation dans la caractérisation des lésions hépatiques focales est sous-explorée. Cette étude évalue le SWS et le SWA chez 73 patients présentant 75 nodules hépatiques focaux, en utilisant l'IRM et l'histopathologie comme références. Les résultats indiquent que le SWS moyen était significativement plus élevé dans les nodules malins (2.35 ± 0.62 m/s) que dans les nodules bénins (1.89 ± 0.88 m/s, p<0.001), tandis que le SWA était significativement plus faible dans les nodules malins (0.59 ± 0.31 Np/m/Hz) que dans les nodules bénins (0.93 ± 0.49 Np/m/Hz, p<0.001). Un seuil de 2.43 m/s pour le SWS a fourni une sensibilité de 0.54 (IC : 0.38-0.69) et une spécificité de 0.84 (IC : 0.72-0.94), tandis qu'un seuil SWA de 0.81 Np/m/Hz a atteint une sensibilité de 0.83 (IC : 0.69-0.92) et une spécificité de 0.71 (IC : 0.55-0.83). La combinaison du SWS et du SWA par le biais d'une analyse discriminante linéaire (LDA) a permis d’améliorer la précision de la classification, avec une sensibilité de 0.84 (IC : 0.69-0.92) et une spécificité de 0.87 (IC : 0.73-0.94). La combinaison du SWS et du SWA par l’analyse LDA améliore la précision de la classification, soulignant le potentiel du SWVE pour affiner le diagnostic du cancer du foie et la planification du traitement. Dans l'ensemble, cette recherche fait progresser les techniques d'échographie non invasives, fournit de nouveaux biomarqueurs et améliore la précision du diagnostic du cancer du foie, favorisant ainsi une meilleure prise de décision clinique et de meilleurs résultats pour les patients. / The primary aim of this thesis is to advance the field of quantitative ultrasound (QUS) imaging and shear wave viscoelastography (SWVE) for liver cancer assessment, specifically in differentiating benign and malignant nodules. This objective is achieved through three focused studies. The first study enhances QUS diagnostic capabilities by developing phantom-free regularized (PF-R) local attenuation coefficient slope (LACS) maps. Traditional methods requiring reference phantoms are limited by the assumption of comparable sound speeds between phantoms and tissues and the inconvenience of acquiring data from both. The proposed PF-R methodology eliminates the need for calibration phantoms, normalizes frequency and depth without sacrificing accuracy, and extends applicability to nonhomogeneous tissues. Key modifications include linear interpolation of the power spectrum, relaxation of diffraction assumptions, and adaptive frequency restriction. Tested on various tissue-mimicking phantoms and human liver datasets, the method demonstrates robustness and potential for improved diagnostic accuracy in liver steatosis and tumors. The second study addresses the limitations of B-mode ultrasound (US) in detecting and differentiating liver nodules by employing QUS LACS imaging. Traditional B-mode US often struggles with low sensitivity in the presence of fatty liver or cirrhosis. LACS imaging, providing additional tissue characterization without contrast agents, improves nodule visibility and diagnostic performance. The study was conducted on 97 patients (age: 62 years ± 13) with 100 focal liver nodules (57% malignant and 43% benign). LACS imaging demonstrated superior contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) compared to B-mode US (12.3 dB, p<0.0001). With a LACS threshold of 0.94 dB/cm/MHz, the technique achieved a sensitivity of 0.83 (CI – confidence interval: 0.74-0.89) and a specificity of 0.82 (CI: 0.73-0.88). LACS mean values were significantly higher in malignant nodules (1.28 ± 0.27 dB/cm/MHz) compared to benign nodules (0.98 ± 0.19 dB/cm/MHz, p<0.0001), providing a more accurate classification with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.93 for malignant nodules (CI: 0.88-0.97). The third study investigates the application of SWVE in liver cancer diagnosis, focusing on shear wave speed (SWS) and shear wave attenuation (SWA). While SWVE has shown promise in assessing liver fibrosis and steatosis, its use in characterizing focal liver nodules is underexplored. This study evaluates SWS and SWA in 73 patients with 75 focal liver nodules, using MRI and histopathology as references. Results indicate that mean SWS was significantly higher in malignant nodules (2.35 ± 0.62 m/s) than in benign nodules (1.89 ± 0.88 m/s, p<0.001), while SWA was significantly lower in malignant nodules (0.59 ± 0.31 Np/m/Hz) compared to benign nodules (0.93 ± 0.49 Np/m/Hz, p<0.001). A threshold of 2.43 m/s for SWS provided a sensitivity of 0.54 (CI: 0.38-0.69) and a specificity of 0.84 (CI: 0.72-0.94), whereas a SWA threshold of 0.81 Np/m/Hz achieved a sensitivity of 0.83 (CI: 0.69-0.92) and a specificity of 0.71 (CI: 0.55-0.83). Combining SWS and SWA through linear discriminant analysis (LDA) further improved classification accuracy, achieving a sensitivity of 0.84 (CI: 0.69-0.92) and a specificity of 0.87 (CI: 0.73-0.94). Combining SWS and SWA through the LDA improves classification accuracy, highlighting the potential of SWVE in refining liver cancer diagnosis and treatment planning. Overall, this research advances noninvasive ultrasound techniques, providing new biomarkers and enhancing the diagnostic accuracy for liver cancer, thereby supporting better clinical decision-making and patient outcomes.

Cancer is regarded as a global disease and one of the leading killer diseases in the world. The reason why cancer is so widespread and often misunderstood stems from multiple factors, namely, the lack of knowledge about cancer, unfair discrimination of persons living with cancer, inadequate or inappropriate treatment provided to patients, the stigma attached to cancer, misdiagnosis and late diagnosis of persons living with cancer, as well as the inadequate provision of screening programs to detect cancer at an early stage. The combination of these issues raises alarming medico-legal problems that merit further attention. The thesis will explore the origin, nature, philosophical and clinical aspects pertaining to cancer, as well as legal issues related to cancer and oncology. The study will conclude with recommendations aimed at mitigating and addressing the shortcomings that exist in the medico-legal framework. The study will also draw on a legal comparison of relevant South African, English and American laws and regulations. Since this thesis entails focussing on medico-legal principles, the study will draw on aspects of medical law, labour law, law of contract, law of delict, constitutional law and criminal law. / Private Law / LL. D.