The pharmacokinetics of two antimicrobials were investigated in alpacas. Six healthy alpacas were each administered a single dose of 10 mg/kg of oxytetracycline by IV injection and IM injection. In addition, a single dose of 20 mg/kg of florfenicol by IV administration was given to alpacas in a separate study. The pharmacokinetic parameters of oxytetracycline and florfenicol in alpacas were compared to the results previously obtained in llamas. There were significant differences between llamas and alpacas in several of oxytetracycline pharmacokinetic parameters but there were no significant differences in all of florfenicol pharmacokinetic parameters in these two animals. It can be concluded that llamas and alpacas have different oxytetracycline disposition kinetics while they have similar disposition kinetics of florfenicol. The pharmacokinetics of clorsulon, a narrow-spectrum anthelmintic agent, was investigated in llamas following oral administration at a single dose of 14 mg/kg. The plasma levels of clorsulon produced by this dose was lower than the values reported in the clorsulon pharmacokinetic studies carried out in sheep and goats following oral administration at a single dose of 7 mg/kg This suggests the entire dose of clorsulon is not absorbed in llamas. Since the differential equations describing one-compartment system with first-order input and two-compartment system after IV administration with nonlinear elimination kinetics cannot be solved, there is no mathematical expression for the AUC for drugs following these models. The AUC values calculated from the proposed preliminary AUC equations for drugs following these models were compared to the AUC calculated using the trapezoidal rule method based on computer-generated data using the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. Except for a few exceptions, the predicted AUC from the proposed equations matched the values calculated from the theoretically generated data. / Graduation date: 2004

Graduation date: 1998

El efecto de sincronización de la onda folicular empleando GnRH y LH sobre la tasa de preñez fue estudiado en 60 alpacas hembras adultas, y 60 llamas hembras adultas. Las hembras con folículos ≥ 7mm detectadas por ultrasonografía, fueron distribuidas al azar en tres grupos experimentales de 20 animales cada uno: grupo Control (1 ml de solución salina, IM); grupo GnRH (0.004 mg de acetato de buserelina, IM) y grupo LH (5 mg de LH, IM). La respuesta ovárica a los tratamientos se evaluó mediante ultrasonografía transrectal para determinar el intervalo en días, desde los tratamientos a la emergencia de la nueva onda folicular y el día en que el nuevo folículo dominante alcanzó ≥ 7mm de diámetro. El intervalo desde los tratamientos a la emergencia de la onda folicular fue similar (p mayor 0.05) en los grupos Control (4.5 ± 1.2 días y 4.7 ± 1.2 días), GnRH (4.3 ± 1.4 días y 4.6 ± 1.2 días) y LH (4.5 ± 1.2 días y 4.0 ± 1.2 días), para alpacas y llamas respectivamente. El intervalo desde el tratamiento hasta el día en qué el nuevo folículo dominante alcanzó ≥7 mm, no difirió en los grupos de alpacas Control (8.4 ± 1.9 días), GnRH (9.0 ± 1.6 días) y LH (7.9 ± 2.0 días) (p mayor 0.05). Entretanto en llamas, el intervalo desde los tratamientos a la presencia del nuevo folículo dominante en los grupos GnRH (7.9 ± 1.6 días) y LH (6.7 ± 1.6 días) fueron diferentes con el grupo Control (9.6 ± 1.0 días) (p menor 0.05). El tamaño folicular en alpacas, un día antes del empadre fue menor en los grupos GnRH (6.8 ± 1.4 mm) y Control (7.2 ± 1.3 mm) comparado con el grupo LH (8.9 ± 1.9 mm) (p menor 0.05). Adicionalmente en llamas, el tamaño folicular, un día antes del empadre fue diferente (p menor0.05) entre los grupos Control (6.4 ± 1.3 mm), GnRH (8.5 ± 0.6 mm) y LH (10.4 ± 3.6 mm). El empadre se realizó 12 días después de los tratamientos. Los animales fueron evaluados por ultrasonografía para determinar la tasa de ovulación el día 2 después del empadre y la tasa de preñez el día 35 después del empadre. La tasa de ovulación post empadre fue similar en los grupos control (85.7% y 64.7%), GnRH (94.4% y 88.9%) y LH (85.7% y 77.8%), para alpacas y llamas, respectivamente. La tasa de preñez en el día 35 después del empadre fue similar para todos los grupos (p> 0.05), Control (78.6% y 47.1%), GnRH (77.8% y 66.7%) y LH (64.3% y 72.2%) para alpacas y llamas, respectivamente. En conclusión, la sincronización con GnRH o LH no influyó en el intervalo desde los tratamientos a la emergencia de la nueva onda folicular, tasa de ovulación post empadre, ni la tasa de preñez en alpacas y llamas. / The effect of follicular wave synchronization using GnRH and LH on pregnancy rate was studied in 60 adult female alpacas, and 60 adult female llamas. Females with follicles ≥ 7mm detected by ultrasonography were randomly allocated in three experimental groups of 20 animals each one: Control group (1 ml saline solution, IM), GnRH group (0.004 mg of buserelin acetate, IM) and LH group (5 mg of LH, IM). The ovarian response to treatments was evaluated by transrectal ultrasonography to determine the interval in days from treatments to new follicular wave emergency and to the day which the new dominant follicle reached ≥ 7mm in diameter. The intervals from the treatments to follicular emergency were similar (p> 0.05) in Control (4.5 ± 1.2 days and 4.7 ± 1.2 days); GnRH (4.3 ± 1.4 days and 4.6 ± 1.2 days) and LH groups (4.5 ± 1.2 days and 4.0 ± 1.2 days), for alpacas and llamas respectively. The interval from the treatment to the day on which the new dominant follicle reached ≥ 7 mm in alpacas did not differ in Control (8.4 ± 1.9 days), GnRH (9.0 ± 1.6 days) and LH (7.9 ± 2.0 days) groups (p> 0.05). Meanwhile in llamas, the interval from the treatment to the presence of the new dominant follicle in GnRH (7.9 ± 1.6 days), and LH (6.7 ± 1.6 days) groups were different in comparison to Control group (9.6 ± 1.0 days) (p less 0.05). Follicular sizes in alpacas a day before mating were smaller in GnRH (6.8±1.4 mm) and Control (7.2 ± 1.3 mm) groups in comparison to LH group (8.9 ± 1.9 mm) (p less 0.05). Additionally, in llamas follicular size a day before mating was different (p less 0.05) among Control (6.4 ± 1.3 mm), GnRH (8.5 ± 0.6 mm) and LH (10.4 ± 3.6 mm) groups. Mating was permitted 12 days after treatments. Animals were evaluated by ultrasonography to determine ovulation rate on day 2 after mating and pregnancy rate on day 35 after mating. After mating, ovulation rate were similar in Control (85.7% and 64.7%), GnRH (94.4% and 88.9%) and LH (85.7% and 77.8%) groups, for alpacas and llamas, respectively. Pregnancy rate on day 35 after mating were similar for all groups (p> 0.05), Control (78.6% and 47.1%), GnRH (77.8% and 66.7%), and LH (64.3% and 72.2%) for alpacas and llamas, respectively. In conclusion, synchronization with GnRH or LH did not affect on the intervals from treatments to emergency of new follicular wave, ovulation rate post mating, nor pregnancy rate in alpacas and llamas.

Compara el nivel del nitrógeno ureico sanguíneo entre alpacas y llamas destetadas mantenidas en pastos cultivados. Se utilizan 127 animales (63 alpacas y 64 llamas), tanto hembras como machos destetadas, mantenidas por 20 días luego del destete con pasturas cultivadas compuesta de una asociación de rye grass italiano y trébol blanco realizándose la toma de muestra sanguínea el día 21 antes que salgan a pastorear. Son evaluados las variables de: composición química del alimento ofrecido, nitrógeno ureico sanguíneo (NUS) y el índice de selectividad (IS). La composición química del pasto cultivado ofrecido para el caso de humedad, materia seca, proteína cruda, fibra cruda, extracto etéreo y ceniza es: 81.91%, 18.09%, 16.30%, 19.20%, 1.43% y 6.60% respectivamente. Para el análisis de NUS, las muestras de suero sanguíneo se realizan a través de espectrofotometría UV visible. Los datos son analizados a través de la Prueba de T student de dos muestras con varianzas iguales. Los resultados obtenidos para NUS en alpacas y llamas destetadas son de un promedio de 19.04 ± 3.24 mg/dl con un rango de 12.13 a 26.36 mg/dl y 19.05 ± 3.93 mg/dl con un rango de 8.80 a 25.69 mg/dl respectivamente, no encontrándose diferencia estadística significativa (p>0.05) entre ambas especies. Para el índice de selectividad (IS) se determina entre la composición botánica del potrero y la composición botánica del consumo por los animales, obteniendo resultados de IS neutra, es decir no hay selectividad en ambas especies. / Tesis

Informe de Seminario para optar al grado de Licenciado en Lengua y Literatura Hispánica mención Literatura / Como es posible apreciar en los medios de comunicación, el tan mentado Bicentenario de Chile se ha postulado como una fecha de celebración y de orgullo nacional por los logros alcanzados. A tal punto llega la manipulación mediática, que el presidente actual recrea un simbólico brindis en el Café Torres para festejar tal cual lo hizo su respectivo par cien años atrás. El problema es que ambas celebraciones ocultaron la otra cara de la moneda, que en líneas generales se traduce en las malas condiciones en que vive parte de la sociedad; pues sólo basta contraponer los medios de transporte, la educación y el trabajo de las distintas clases para dar cuenta de la desigualdad. Tal como lo expreso Emilio Recabarren en 1910, la brecha que separa a ricos y pobres es inconcebible y extingue cualquier espíritu de celebración. Así, tanto en el Centenario como en el Bicentenario más que celebrar, se deberían conocer y (auto)criticar los sucesos que han configurado la sociedad actual, la cual se encuentra en un estado de resquebrajamiento debido a los procesos de individuación de los habitantes en relación al desarrollo acelerado de la civilización, el sistema neoliberal impuesto, la fugacidad de las relaciones interpersonales, etc.

The llama (lama glama) in the Bolivian Highlands region is a most important potential resource from the socio-economic point of view for the dedicated producer to the management and exploitation of these Andean camelids, considered as national heritage of our country. The llama is completely adapted to the high plateau system, being considered a three purposed animal in this environment: producer of fiber, meat and work (load). However, due to the expansion of sheep and cattle, they have been marginalized to the poor areas, where they prosper well because they are rustic, sober and greatly efficient in the conversion of food and resistance to the weather of the ecological environment of the Andes. The overuse of pastures, due to the increasing number of heads, has caused imbalance, as the burden of the animal is greater than the load capacity of the native prairie. This translates to the dietary deficiency that affects the rate of fertility, birth, fiber production, meat production and others. The llama is characterized by its great capacity to take advantage of the native grasses, which do not have any studies on the degradability in different seasons and the grade of degradability of forage consumed in different fermentation times in the first compartment of the stomach. Therefore, this work of research, through its results, will create the implementation of conservation programs, improvement and implementation of native grasslands and cultivated to meet the nutritional needs of the llama. In the present work, the degradability of forages from the native prairies, for llamas in the rain season, has been planted to know to determine how long it takes to produce maximum degradability and know in what percentage the nutrients are utilized. With the results, programs can be developed to determine whether or not there is an unmet demand for nutrients.

Canid predation poses a serious threat to the sheep industry in the United States. Llamas are becoming popular among livestock producers as part of their predation management programs but there is little information on the factors associated with llama guarding behavior. This study examined several physical and behavioral attributes of individual llamas to assess whether they might predict the aggressiveness llamas display coward canids. The study was conducted in three phases. The first involved determining some physical and behavioral traits of individual llamas. Twenty individuals were randomly assigned to one of four groups (n = 5/group) and frequencies with which animals initiated and responded to various behaviors, e.g., dominance, aggression, threats, subordination, leadership, and alertness, were documented using focal-group sampling. Individuals were then ranked according to the frequency with which they displayed each behavior. In the second phase, activity patterns of individual llamas with sheep were assessed. Lamas varied in how close to sheep they stayed (mean = 48.2 m I 3.5) as we 1 as in the way they distributed their activities. The third phase examined interactions among llamas, sheep, and a domestic sheep dog to assess their individual aggressiveness toward canids. Llamas varied in the degree of aggressiveness displayed toward the dog; some chased the dog, others ran from it, some stayed with the flock, and others did not. Llamas were ranked based on these responses. Llamas with top ranks were curious and chased the dog, but stayed close to the sheep. Bottom-ranked individuals ignored the sheep and ran from the dog. Physical and behavioral traits of llamas and their behavioral patterns with sheep were then compared with aggressiveness they displayed toward the dog. Leadership and alert behaviors were correlated with aggressiveness (r = 0.472, p = 0.064 and r = 0.607, p = 0.012, respectively) Weight of llamas was also correlated with aggressiveness (r = 0.475, p = 0.039). Llama coloration was associated with aggressiveness they displayed toward the dog (X2 = 6.003, df = 2, p = 0.049), however, color was also associated with the weight of llamas (X2 = 7.49, df = 2, p = 0.024). Traits correlated with llama aggressiveness are easily recognized and sheep producers interested in acquiring a llama should consider them when selecting livestock guardians.

In this experiment, we used four male llamas that were three to four years of age from the Khara race. They were divided into two ad libitum feeding groups. The digestible energy (ED) was determined using samples that were sent to the laboratory. These samples were derived from a conventional in vivo assay using the method of total fecal collection in order to determine the difference between energy consumed and energy excreted. Metabolizable energy was calculated by deducting digestible energy, energy loss in the urine and energy loss in the gases (methane). Urinary energy was determined through the measurement of nitrogen in the urine as urea. Other studies have reported the energy values of alfalfa hay and barley as 414.05 Kcal/100g and 405.11 Kcal/100g, respectively. Additionally, alfalfa hay and barley have been recorded as having gross energy values of 6,973.92 Kcal/day and 4,373.65 Kcal/day, respectively. In this study, the energies excreted in the feces were 2,365.42 Kcal/day for alfalfa and 1,643.26 Kcal/day for barley. In order to determine the value of metabolizable energy, it is first necessary to obtain the urinary energy values (EU) by measuring the amount of nitrogen excretion as well as the energy of the gases (methane). Then, by deducting the energy calculated from the digestible energy, metabolizable energy may be estimated. The nitrogen content in urinary excretions from the llamas tested was highly variable from one treatment to another. With barley, the observed content was 0.59 g/day whereas with alfalfa hay it was 7.36 g/day. According to the data obtained for nitrogen content in urinary excretions, the amount of urea excreted each day was also obtained. It was also found to be variable from one food to another. Values of urea excretion for alfalfa and barley were 15.76 and 1.27 grams of urea/day respectively. By multiplying the daily amount of urea excreted by its caloric value (2.528 Kcal/g), the energy lost in the urine was determined to be 38.84 Kcal/day for alfalfa and 3.23 Kcal/day for barley. It was not possible to determine the energy of the gases. Instead, we used data obtained from llamas fed with forage (Engelhardt and Schneider, 1977). The data established that the energy loss as methane gas is approximately 7.1% of the gross energy. With this value as a reference for llamas, the energy losses as methane gas in this study were 495.08 Kcal/Kg/MS for alfalfa hay and 310.53 Kcal/Kg/MS for barley. By definition, the metabolic energy (EM) is the amount of energy from food that is calculated by determining the difference between the digestible energy (ED) and the energy lost in urine (EU) and gases (EG) according to the following equation (NRC, 1981): EM = ED - (EU + EG). Based on the equation, the metabolizable energy of alfalfa hay and barley are as follows: EB = 4140.49 Kcal/Kg/MS and EM = 2408.43 Kcal/Kg/MS for alfalfa compared to EB = 4051.20 Kcal/Kg/MS and EM = 2061.32 Kcal/Kg/MS for barley.

Considering the activity of introducing genetic resources with a high potential for yield, and with a wide adaptation range, it is possible to strengthen the cattle production system, through the production of adequate forage in quality, and quantity. Brazilian grass was introduced to Bolivia in 1974 for demonstrating excellent forage characteristics, and great adaptation qualities to the different ecosystems of the Andes. The material was introduced through the Experimental Station of Patacamaya, with their material supplied through the Experimental Station of Obonuco (Colombia). The following study was conducted at the Agropecuary Experimental Center of Condori, located 49 km. north of the city of Oruro, department of Oruro, and 12 km. northeast of the population of Caracollo. Geographically it is located between the parallels 17°31’41’’ latitude south, and 64°14’ 02’’ longitude west to the Greenwich, and at a height of 3830 m.a.s.l during the year of 2005. The study was performed with the objective of determining the apparent digestibility in Lamas feed with Brazilian grass, and with Wheat, for which 4 species between 2 to 3 years and an average weight of 79 were selected for the study. The specimens were selected according to phenotypic characteristics, each of them having their own metabolic cage with its own feeding and drinking station. The design was completely random with no structured treatments; the significant variables were evaluated under contrast test to 0.05 of probability. The obtained results regarding the quantity of food consumed is much related to the quantity of feces excreted without having statistical differences between these two variables, the average consumption being of 2157.8 g/day and the average production of feces of a 789.55 g/day. The consumption of water is statistically different but proportional to the amount of moisture found in the forage, meaning that the greater amount of water supplied through the plan the less the amount of drinking water. The species consuming Brazilian grass presented a water consumption of 244.64 cc/day in relationship to the moisture percentage of 11.51% of the plant, being 2.38% larger in comparison to wheat. The amount of feces produced by the experimental units shows no statistical difference at a 0.05 of probability in relationship to food consumption, meaning that the amount of feces produced is proportional to amount of ingested food. The urine volume registered 1540.32 cc/day in relationship with the consumption of Brazilian grass, and a lesser volume of 671 cc/day in relationship with wheat consumption, observing significance with 99% of reliability. The results of the digestibility of the nutrients in Brazilian grass, and wheat are the following: Protein 78.59% and 48.01%; Ash 72.99% and 52.59%; Fiber 47.70% and 52.51%; Ethereal Extract 62.64% and 53.11%, respectively. We can conclude that the Brazilian grass is an excellent forage specie of good digestible properties, being protein its principal digestible nutrient.

Llamas (Lama glama) take advantage of poor natural forage (grasses and others) due to their efficient digestive physiology that is adapted for this type of forage. The problem now faced is the gradual exhaustion of the native grassland (low phytomass production). The vegetation does not cover the dry matter consumption requirements, and less so the nutrient requirements, of these animals. Because of this there is the necessity of determining the botanical composition, pasture selection by plant parts, and chemical composition of what llamas ingest in order to improve these animals' nutrition in the pasture. This study occurred at the Larqa Uma ranch, located on Cachaca hill, north of the community of Pujrata, Santiago de Callapa municipality, Pacajes province, department of La Paz. It is located between 4390 and 4530 meters above sea level, at 17° 14' South latitude by 68° 18' West longitude. The botanical composition, plant parts, and chemical composition (organic matter content, raw protein, and neutral detergent fiber) of pastured llama ingestions were determined on the reserved pasture and the pasture with native grasses during February, March, and April in the rainy season. Three male q'ara-variety llamas of three ages were used. They were fistulated at the esophagus to collect ingestion samples. Determination of botanical composition of the ingestions was done by the point stereoscopic technique (Heady and Torrel 1959), and the chemical composition by Proximal Weende analysis (organic matter and raw protein) and the Van Soest method (neutral detergent fiber). The variance analysis showed highly significant differences for the botanical composition of llama ingestions by pasture groups (p0.05). The llamas selected 80.13% grasses, higher than the other pasture groups: 8.64% for grassoids and 8.63% herbs, which were selected in similar proportions (p>0.05). Statistically, there are no differences between these pasture groups found in llama ingestions. Shrubs contributed a very low proportion of ingestion (2.86%). Selection for grasses (84.95%) during February was higher than the month of April and similar to March. In contrast, the March average of 80.62% is similar to the first month and higher than in April (74.83%). Shrub consumption of 4.36% during April was higher than in February and similar to in March. March's average of 3.92% is similar to the last month and higher than in February (0.20%). During February, March, and April, grass consumption by llamas (84.95%, 80.62%, and 74.83%, respectively) was higher than the average consumption of the other pasture groups. Grassoids, herbs, and shrubs were selected in similar proportions (p>0.05). The variance analysis showed highly significant differences for selection for parts of the plants, interaction between the evaluation month with parts of the plant, and interaction of pasturing site with plant parts (p<0.05).