In the highlands, where regular agriculture and livestock are not viable, raising camelids is the only means of subsistence for rural families. While grazing during the dry season in the high Andean region, llamas face serious nutritional deficiencies due to limited forage availability. This study was done at the experimental station of the Benson Agriculture and Food Institute located in the community of Letanias which is in the municipality of Viacha. The objective was to determine the effect of food deprivation on the metabolic profile of blood plasma (concentration of urea-nitrogen, total protein, albumin, and creatinine) as well as the concentration of nitrogen in feces and urine of four and five year old llamas. These llamas were fed on a diet of 80% barley hay and 20% alfalfa hay during two periods of study (before and after food deprivation). Eight male Q’ara llamas were cannulated with a one meter tube in the jugular vein for blood sampling and trained to stay in metabolic cages. The study took place over a period of seven weeks, in which there was a four week period where food was reduced to 30%. The statistical analysis used was the paired t test. The results obtained were: urea-nitrogen concentration = 23.31 ± 8.73 mg/dl, total protein = 9.15 ± 1.50 mg/dl, albumin = 4.47 ± 0.41 mg/dl, and creatinine = 2.39 ± 0.49 mg/dl. The results for nitrogen concentration (%) in feces and urine were 1.61 ± 0.09 and 0.82 ± 0.15 respectively. The average weight loss for the animals was 13.25 kg. According to the results obtained in this study, the concentration of metabolites in blood plasma is within the range reported in other investigations. Statistical analysis indicates no significant differences (p<0.05) in the study periods before and after food deprivation for urea nitrogen, total protein, albumin, and nitrogen in the feces. In contrast, there was a significant difference (p<0.01) in plasma creatinine, nitrogen in the urine, and animal body weight.

This study was conducted in the Rural Academic Unit of Tiahuanaco, in the Ingavi province, in the department of La Paz. Three juvenile vicunas and three adult vicunas were used. Our objective was to observe the development of vicunas (Vicugna vicugna) fed with three types of hay (Bromus catharicus Phalaris tuberoisum and Medicago sativa) in stables. We obtained the following results: rectal temperature of 38.2ºC in juveniles and 38.6ºC in adults; heart rate of 68 beats/min in juveniles and 67 beats/min in adults; respiratory rate of 18 breaths/min in juveniles and 17 breaths/min in adults; femoral vein pulse of 70 pulses/min in juveniles and 64 pulses/min in adults; compartment movement of 7 movements/min 7 times in juveniles and 7 movements/min 7 times in adults. Measurements for apparent digestibility were: (MS) 78.8% in juveniles and 80.4% in adults; (MO) 74.2% in juveniles and 76.4% in adults; (PB) 85.2% in juveniles and 83.7% in adults; (EE) 83.2% in juveniles and 76.2% in adults; (FDN) 75.6% in juveniles and 73.8% in adults; (ELN) 81.2% in juveniles and 78.3% in adults; (NDT) 80.4% in juveniles and 77.7% in adults; (ED/Kcal) 353.8 grams in juveniles and 341.8 grams in adults. For metabolites en vicuna serum we obtained: total protein of 6.7 g/dl in juveniles and 7.7 g/dl in adults; albumin of 5.3 g/dl in juveniles and 5.7 g/dl in adults; creatinine of 1.3 mg/dl in juveniles and 1.5 mg/dl in adults; urea of 40.7 mg/dl in juveniles and 39.2 mg/dl in adults; glucose of 131.8 mg/dl in juveniles and 130.7 mg/dl in adults; cholesterol of 29 mg/dl in juveniles and 27.4 mg/dl in adults; triglycerides of 44.2 mg/dl in juveniles; GPT of 5.5 UI/I in juveniles and 5.1 UI/I in adults; GOT of 5.4 UI/I in juveniles and 5.1 UI/I in adults; calcium of 8.5 mg/dl in juveniles and 8.3 mg/dl in adults; phosphorus of 2.4 mg/dl in juveniles and 2.3 mg/dl in adults; magnesium of 19 mEq/L. Lastly, we observed a weight gain of 2.6 g/day in juveniles and 1.8 g/day in adults.

In recent years llamas have attracted great national and international interest for their qualities of human food production, fiber production for high-quality textiles, and for being an ecological animal. These qualities have allowed a resurgence of cultivating them for commercial ends. One of the principal limits is secure food for allowing a constant, sustainable growth. The objective of this study was to evaluate the metabolic profile and live weight of male llamas (Lama glama) fed with barley hay, alfalfa hay, and quinoa scrub. The fieldwork occurred in metabolic chambers in a closed environment at the demonstration farm of the Benson Agriculture and Food Institute (of Brigham Young University) located in the community of Letanys, in Viacha municipality. Three types of food--100% barley hay, 80% barley hay + 20% alfalfa hay, and 80% barley hay + 20% quinoa scrub--were offered randomly to seven llamas averaging three years old. A channel allowed the placement of a one-meter probe that collected jugular blood, the plasma of which was analyzed in the animal nutrition laboratory of UAC-Tiahuanaco. The average metabolites in the blood plasma were not significantly different (p>0.05) according to treatment except for GPT enzyme, with CV=20.5 Weight gain showed no significant difference (p>0.05) between treatments nor between blocks. Regarding percentage of food absorbed, 90% was consumed and 64% was absorbed. It was found that animals subjected to the three different diets lost weight due to the stressful experimental conditions of physiologic administration of saline and heparine during sample collection. In conclusion, the recommended feed is the diet consisting of barley hay and quinoa, followed by barley hay and alfalfa, both of which are recommended to supplement the feeding of llamas. Also, animals with better physical constitution and a tranquil temperament respond best to the treatments.

Internationally, Bolivia has the largest llama population followed by Peru. This makes our country a power in this renewable resource for working and generating economic development. This is mainly because of the quality of llama meat, which has nutritional properties superior to other animal species. The development and research in our country of llamas is not very significant. But in other countries advanced studies have been done for years, specifically in the area of reproduction, which represents problems for intensive repopulation because of singular characteristics of semen and copulation. The present research work was done at the UAC in Tiahuanacu (U.C.B.) and is titled: “Determination of protein profile and presence of antibodies in llama seminal plasma at three, four, and five years of age.” At different dates of semen collection, protein fractions were determined, their molecular weights, presence of antibodies and concentrations of protein fractions. This determined the presence of possible components of seminal plasma caused by low percentages of successful breeding for these animals. In the field work, a series of tests were done so the male would respond to the artificial collection of semen. It began with the mannequin technique (Peruvian) and others, which had no results. The objective was obtained with the mannequin technique for the llama group, which was accepted by 80% of the males. The lab work consisted of separating the seminal plasma from the semen with a centrifuge. Electrophoresis was used to determine protein fractions. This helps to determine the number of protein fractions, their molecular weights, immunoglobulins and their concentrations. The highest concentrations of protein fractions were found in four and five year old animals with 15 to 18 protein fractions. In weekly semen collections the last week showed 18 fractions (four year old animals). These could possibly play an important role in nutrition, capacitation and protection of spermatozoa. The molecular weights of the proteins in seminal plasma vary from one animal to another and dates of collection. The extreme ranges are from 2,000 to 150,000 Daltons. Five year old animals have higher molecular weights with respect to younger animals. With respect to immunoglobulins or antibodies, proteins with molecular weights of 150,000 to 152,500 Daltons were found in animals from three to five years old. Immunoglobulins G in llama seminal plasma were found using the radial immune diffusion technique. Concentrations of protein fractions are variable with extreme ranges from 11.65 to 0.03 mg/ml of seminal plasma. These variations are heterogeneous in the age of the animals as well as in the collections dates. There is a slight increase in five year old animals in the third week of semen collection. The finals results of the proteins fractions and their molecular weights show that there are antibodies in llama seminal plasma. These play an important role in spermatic viability, which is why this subject should continue to be researched to determine its specific function and look for alternatives to isolate and neutralize these antibodies and increase the fertility indexes of these animals.

This study occurred in the Rural Academic Unit-Tiahuanaco installations, of the Bolivian Catholic University-La Paz, Bolviia, with the objective of evaluating macro- and microscopic characteristics of sperm ejaculation from bulbourethrectomized llamas. Six q'ara-variety male llamas of 3, 4, and 5 years of age were used over 8 weeks during which they were fed with natural and cultivated pastures. Ejaculate was collected with an artificial vagina with stimulation (libido) of male llamas by female llamas, for macro- and microscopic evaluation (volume, pH, color, appearance, motility, concentration, and sperm vitality). The results obtained were: average volume of 0.55[+or-]0.36 ml, with a CV of 20.2%; average pH of 7.53[+or-]0.42 with a CV of 4.9%; the ejaculate's color varied between crystal white, opaque white, and milky white at proportions of 50%, 25%, and 25%, respectively; average motility was 25.9[+or-]21.8% with a CV of 27.6%; average sperm concentration was 28.7x106[+or-]20.11x106 sperm/ml with a CV of 13%; average live sperm count was 31.8[+or-]24.4% with a CV of 25.3%; and the ejaculate an appearance of nonviscous fluid. The 4-year-old animals had excellent sperm ejaculations (macro- and microscopic characteristics) without differences between collection weeks.

This study was carried out in the San Clemente community. The objective was to analyze the effect of using amaranth leaf flour in the creation of a diet for guinea pigs. The field work was done over a period of 12 months and was done in two phases: Development of the diet: this was done by growing the amaranth, cutting it, and dehydrating it until flour was obtained. Then, it was mixed into the diet in accordance with the pre-determined formula along with the other respective materials. Handling of guinea pigs: This was done in the shed of the San Clemente community after it had been re-conditioned and disinfected. The weaned guinea pigs were taken there for the study for a period of 2 months. A completely randomized design (CRD) with six treatments was used. Each treatment had four repetitions. There was one experimental unit, which consisted of five guinea pigs. The data were evaluated via an analysis of variance, a Tukey test, and orthogonal comparisons. The variable of interest was the % of amaranth flour in a basic diet. The treatments were as follows: T0= Control diet with 0% amaranth flour; T1= 20% amaranth flour; T2= 40% amaranth flour; T3= 60% amaranth flour; T4= 80% amaranth flour; T5= Fresh amaranth with herbs from the community. Analyzed Variables: biweekly weight gain; monthly mortality; daily dry feed intake; production costs per treatment; and tasting. From the results, we concluded that the T1 diet and grass-feeding in the community were the best options since they presented the best results in weight gain and nutrient conversion. With regard to dry feed intake, T5 was consumed in the greatest quantities and thus had the highest production cost.

The llama, a potential socioeconomic resource in the Bolivian highlands, faces serious nutritional deficiencies during the gestational and postpartum stages that negatively affect production. This study was conducted at the Tika Huta Experimental Center in the Llachu community of the Oruro prefecture. Our objectives were to determine metabolite concentration in blood plasma as well as live weight performance of pregnant and postpartum female llamas. Adult and juvenile llamas were fed diets of either plain natural grass or natural grass combined with 0.4 kg of barley hay. In addition, we determined metabolite concentrations in blood plasma and live weight performance of newborns until three months of age. Ten newborn llamas and nine pregnant adult llamas were used. We collected 133 blood plasma samples from mothers and 57 blood plasma samples from newborns. The samples were sent to laboratories at Brigham Young University for analysis. Results showed the following metabolite concentrations in pregnant llamas: 7.23 ± 1.80 g/dl total proteins, 36.31 ± 1.32 mg/dl urea, 84.72 ± 3.58 mg/dl triglycerides, 55.89 ± 2.32 mg/dl cholesterol, and 7.11 ± 1.34 mg/dl creatinine. In newborn llamas, blood plasma metabolite concentrations were as follows: 7.20 ± 1.54 g/dl total proteins, 48.41 ± 1.30 mg/dl urea, 103.25 ± 2.60 mg/dl triglycerides, 89.09 ± 3.30 mg/dl cholesterol, and 2.39 ± 0.33 mg/dl creatinine. The average live weights were 76.82 ± 8.57 kg and 15.95 ± 2.47 kg for mothers and newborns, respectively. Animals fed diets of natural grass and barley hay yielded results with significant differences. It is recommended that llama diets be supplemented with barley hay during the first two months of gestation, the last third of gestation, and postpartum.

Casma Valley Dynamics during the Initial PeriodSome of the major and most spectacular architectural complexes built in the New World are located in the Casma Valley during the Initial Period (2500-1000 B.C.). In this paper the authors present preliminary results of this excavations providing information about the relationships between the two principal sites, Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke and the Sechin Alto Complex. Evidence on architecture, ceramics and other artifacts also show connections with other coastal sites of the area. The early development in the Casma valley apparently was autonomous with limited connections with other contemporaneous sites. / Algunos de los complejos arquitectónicos más grandes en el Nuevo Mundo se construyeron en el valle de Casma durante el Periodo Inicial (2500-1000 a.C.), y se contaron entre los más espectaculares de su época. En este artículo se presentan resultados preliminares de excavaciones realizadas por los autores en esa zona, las cuales proveen de información sobre las interrelaciones entre los dos sitios principales, Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke y el Complejo de Sechín Alto. Las evidencias de arquitectura, cerámica y otros artefactos reflejan también relaciones con otros sitios costeños de la región. Al parecer, el desarrollo temprano casmeño fue autónomo y las conexiones con otros sitios contemporáneos fuera del valle fueron limitados.

Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Médico Veterinario / En las localidades altiplánicas de Caquena y Guallatire de la comuna de Putre, los ganaderos pertenecientes a la etnia Aymara sustentan parte importante de su economía en la producción de ganados de alpacas y llamas. Esta Memoria de Título se realizó con el objetivo de identificar si el ganado de alpacas y llamas presentaba problemas sanitarios que pusieran en riesgo la sustentabilidad de los productores Aymara. Para la realización de esta Memoria, se utilizaron herramientas de Epidemiología Participativa (EP), como entrevistas semi-estructuradas, métodos de visualización y, métodos de ranking y puntaje, con lo que se logró obtener información sanitaria desde la perspectiva de los ganaderos. Como resultado se observó que los principales problemas fueron enfermedades del ganado y ataque por carnívoros silvestres. Respecto a las enfermedades, señalaron que los principales problemas eran la Sarna, Dolor de Guata e Infestaciones con Piojo y Garrapata, además del llamado Animal Amarillo en Guallatire. En la Matriz de Puntaje se obtuvo un alto nivel de acuerdo respecto a que los signos Fiebre (W= 0,943; p<0,01), toma mucha agua (W=0,924; p<0,01), animal no come (W=0,882; p<0,01) y diarrea (W=0,885; p<0,01), se presentan todos en Dolor de Guata y los tres primeros en Animal Amarillo. Con relación a la estacionalidad de los problemas sanitarios en el ganado, hubo un alto acuerdo en que las desparasitaciones (W=0,941; p<0,01) se realizan en otoño y primavera, ya que se ejecutan antes de la sequía de invierno y de las pariciones en verano. También los ganaderos coincidieron en que la primavera es la época de mayor falta de agua (W=0,917; p<0,01) y, el verano la época de lluvias (W=0,891; p<0,05), factores climáticos a los que asocian variabilidades en la condición corporal. Respecto a los agentes nombrados, los ganaderos tienen acuerdo que la ocurrencia de Piojo (W=0.891; p<0,05) es todo el año, variando la ocurrencia de las demás enfermedades según localidad. Animal Amarillo presentó gran nivel de acuerdo (W=0,750; p<0,05) en que los casos se presentan en primavera. En relación a la cadena de valor de productos de origen camélido doméstico, principalmente se obtiene fibra, la cual venden fuera del país en ferias, lo cual no representa un riesgo dentro de las localidades, además no hay un gran flujo de estas entre predios. Los productos carne y charqui son principalmente para autoconsumo y venta muy limitada, sin presentar un riesgo para la sanidad animal. Derivado de estos resultados, podemos concluir que es necesario realizar un diagnóstico epidemiológico utilizando herramientas de laboratorio en la zona para conocer los agentes parasitarios, bacterianos o virales que afectan la sanidad local, como a su vez profundizar en aquellas enfermedades de carácter zoonótico que pueden afectar la salud de los ganaderos

Publicación a texto completo no autorizada por el autor / Evalúa la diversidad genética en las poblaciones de Lama glama (llama) en las regiones de Puno y Cuzco, para conocer la variabilidad genética contenida en el Banco de Germoplasma de la Estación Experimental (E. E.) Quimsachata – Puno, del Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA) creada hace 25 años por el gobierno peruano, para consolidar los planes de manejo y conservación. La extracción del material genético se realiza a partir de muestras de folículos pilosos en animales pertenecientes a los pequeños y medianos productores de llamas de las provincias de Melgar, El Collao, Chicuito y Lampa en la región Puno; asimismo, Quispicanchi, Canchis y Espinar en la región Cuzco. Se analiza el dominio hipervariable I de la región control del ADN mitocondrial de 282 individuos por PCR. Los productos de la amplificación son secuenciados y analizados a nivel intraespecífico, poblacional y filogenético. Se identifican 29 haplotipos a partir de las secuencias analizadas. Las poblaciones presentan alta diversidad genética y haplotípica, y sus distancias genéticas pequeñas. El análisis de la red de haplotipos muestra que las poblaciones de llamas comparten linajes maternos con guancos, vicuñas y alpacas. Es una población con historia demográfica estable, producto de su origen múltiple de las diversas subespecies de camélidos. Y en la E. E. Quimsachata se conservan los linajes maternos más frecuentes, ampliamente distribuidos y los compartidos con guanacos, vicuñas y alpacas. Los análisis de estructuración poblacional revelan que no existe estructuración geográfica y no hay correlación geográfica con la composición genética. Además, a nivel de variedad se hace evidente la ausencia de estructuración genética, y el fuerte efecto de hibridación. Sin embargo, la gran diversidad genética contenida en las regiones de Puno y Cuzo, y los catorce nuevos linajes maternos encontrados, convierte estas regiones en lugares potenciales para la conservación y diseño de futuros planes de manejo genético para la especie. / Tesis