Many new forms of tourism have emerged over the past two decades claiming to provide an alternative, responsible approach to international travel. Unlike ecotourism and volunteer tourism, travel centered on solidarity activism has not been thoroughly explored in the academic literature. Through narrative interviews conducted with organizational staff, former travelers, and members of a rural host community, this study profiles three organizations that organize solidarity travel experiences in Nicaragua. Qualitative analysis of the interviews and secondary materials including blog posts and videos reveals that staff, travelers and community members feel that they benefit from the exchanges that take place during solidarity travel. However, the study participants also articulated a number of concerns and issues with the practice of solidarity travel, including the limited nature of ongoing contact between travelers, coordinating organizations, and the communities that are visited while in Nicaragua. The experience of solidarity travel provided participants with a greater understanding of the connections between Nicaragua and North America, and a critical self-awareness for young travelers in particular, as many were experiencing the Global South for the first time. The successful translation of that exposure and awareness into activism is less certain and is identified as an area for future improvement of the overall solidarity travel experience. Overall, this study contributes to the emerging literature on solidarity travel by comparing three organizations with different missions and methods, and showing how solidarity can be enacted in a variety of ways through travel. Through the inclusion of three distinct groups of participants, this study also highlights similarities and differences related to the way solidarity travel is experienced by members of these groups.

En Afrique subsaharienne (ASS), les élites locales sont les acteurs décisifs de l’émergence de l’économie locale. Elles doivent permettre la valorisation des ressources territoriales, la mise en place de règles du jeu, la constitution des entreprises et des acteurs. L’existence d’élites locales est en ce sens un facteur de réussite du DEL.Dans cette thèse, nous nous demandons quels sont les fonctions, les capacités et les comportements de ces élites du DEL, aussi diverses qu’elles puissent être. Nous avons réalisé une étude de cas sur le territoire de Foumban au Cameroun. Nous avons choisi d’utiliser une méthode qualitative passant par trois étapes : le développement d’un concept et de critères de repérage des élites du DEL, leur identification à Foumban et la conduite d’entretiens semi-directifs en face-à-face avec les élites identifiées.Nous expliquons dans cette thèse que le DEL en ASS est un processus qui repose sur les dynamiques d’une multitude d’élites locales, qui, à travers leurs actions et leurs interactions, construisent les capacités des territoires. Les élites du DEL sont des individus pluriels qui poursuivent leurs intérêts et qui usent de leur pouvoir. Elles réalisent un travail institutionnel et modifient les règles du jeu, intentionnellement ou non. Elles ne sont pas les dirigeants formels, mais sont certains acteurs qui sont fonctionnels, qui sont à l’origine du changement et qui permettent de révéler le potentiel du territoire.Elles exercent deux fonctions essentielles au DEL: l’activation, c’est-à-dire la mobilisation des parties prenantes, et l’expertise, c’est-à-dire l’identification de solutions pour valoriser les ressources territoriales.A Foumban, nous avons observé que les élites du DEL mettent en oeuvre des actions concrètes et s’appuient sur des capacités leur permettant de réussir à mettre en oeuvre leurs fonctions. Nous avons également remarqué d’importantes divergences d’opinions entre les élites, par exemple sur l’impact des communautés sur le développement local et sur le type d’approche du DEL à adopter : top-down ou bottom-up.Contrairement aux pratiques occidentales qui mettent en avant la coopération entre les acteurs, nous montrons que, dans un contexte de développement et de transition, la transformation du local en territoire passe par l’existence d’une biodiversité d’élites locales en compétition qui créent, modifient et sélectionnent les institutions au cours de vives négociations et de multiples confrontations. Les élites font alors avancer les débats essentiels. Toutes les idées sont négociables jusqu’à atteindre une situation stable.Nous avons également mis en lumière l’existence d’un consensus sur un sujet essentiel pour le DEL, l’importance des Très Petites Entreprises. Elles sont capables de réconcilier l’économie communautaire et l’économie commerciale. Ce consensus montre que, derrière leur diversité et leurs confrontations, les élites du DEL partagent certaines valeurs et qu’il existe une certaine conscience collective sur la stratégie gagnante. / In subsaharan Africa (SSA) the local elite is the key player of local economic emergence. The elite of LED must lead to the valorisation of territorial ressources, to the setting-up of the rules of the game, to the creation of local firms and local players. The existence of local elite is therefore a success factor of LED.In this thesis, we have investigated the functions, the capacities and the behaviours, opinions and practices of the various members of the local elite of LED. We have conducted a qualitative research with the case study in Foumban, Cameroon. Our methodology was organised in three main steps: development of a concept and of identification criterias of the elite of LED; identification of this elite in Foumban; face-to-face interviews with the elite.As we explain in this thesis, LED in SSA is a process that requires a variety of local elite who build the capacities of territories through its actions and interactions. The elite of LED is made by individuals, pursuing their own interests, and using their powers. They are doing an institutional work and they are changing the rules of the game intentionally or not. They are not the official players, but only those functional players able to unlock the territorial potential through two main actions: the activation, that aims at mobilizing stakeholders and the expertise, that aims at imagining solutions to generate the territorial ressources.In Foumban, we have observed that the elite of LED we identified is conducting concrete actions and in doing so relies on capacities to implemt its LED functions. We also have noticed strong differences among the opinions of the elite of LED, for example about the issue of the impact of communities on development, about the territory as a container or a recipient of resources, or about bottom-up vs. top-down LED approach.Unlike the Western approach of LED promoting the cooperation between the main stakeholders, we have highlighted that in a context of development and transition, the transformation of local level into a productive territory needs the intervention of a “biodiversity” of local elite in competition. Its multiple confrontations and difficult negotiations enable the creation, the change and the selection of performing institutions. The local elite of LED is debating about the future : all ideas can be expressed and are negotiable until a stable situation has been reached.In Foumban, we also have identified a consensus within the elite on a key issue: the importance of the Very Small Firms for local development. This consensus shows that behind differences and competitions, the local elite shares some values and that a certain collective awareness does exist about the winning strategy.

In 2005, the city of Port Elizabeth, in the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (NMBM) of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, initiated an urban renewal project of its derelict city centre areas and the southern part of the old Port Elizabeth port. This, after the newly constructed Port of Ngqura, 34-kilometres north of Nelson Mandela Bay, was designed to serve as a state-of-the-art industrial port within a specially established Industrial Development Zone (IDZ). This has freed the existing southern part of the old Port Elizabeth port – strategically centred on the doorstep of the city – up for re-development for nonindustrial purposes, effectively opening it up to retail, residential, office and tourism/leisure/entertainment development; and causing it to become an extension of the inner city. The Urban Renewal Plan and the implementation thereof, address specific local economic growth-related factors, integrated with urban development challenges applicable to the city. Since the process began in 2005, significant progress has been made, embracing a long-term approach incrementally implemented on the basis of a well-researched overall plan. This plan is hinged on the strong foundation of in-depth, extensive market research in the retail, residential, office and tourism/leisure/entertainment sectors and aims at the creation of a strong cluster around these areas of development. The term cluster describes the concept of groups of inter-connected and related firms, suppliers, related industries, and specialized institutions in particular fields, uniting in particular a location to - amongst other reasons - maximise their reach, lower their costs and enhance their business (Porter: 1990: 71). In this study, the cluster concept is broadened to encompass a constellation of urban developments around and complementing retail, residential, office and tourism/leisure/entertainment business. As such, the urban renewal project becomes an important element in the Local Economic Development (LED) planning of Port Elizabeth. The practical experience of traditional, rational and urban planning methodology, often conflicts with the reality of market demand - particularly in the South African case. Therefore, this study explores an alternative method for approaching urban planning, by focussing on the bottom-up approach, which essentially takes into account the needs of the customer – or local community – through a special purpose vehicle: a fresh, alternative approach to urban renewal that still makes a positive contribution to local economic development. The Mandela Bay Development Agency (MBDA) – a separate company formed by the NMBM to manage the redevelopment of the city – strategy embraced an interventionist approach to urban renewal as an alternative framework for encouraging overall development in a particular urban node. The cornerstone of the MBDA’s urban renewal approach is an overarching philosophy of “private sector investment following public sector infrastructure investment” (MBDA: 2010: 2). This research is the result of a long-standing interaction between theory, praxis and reflection. Experiences of practical implementation have been framed by the MBDA project over a five year period and build the case-study presented. viii Urban planning and urban renewal are used in a pro-active, action-orientated manner, to achieve sustainable, competitive LED through the development of a viable multi-purpose, non-industrial retail and leisure cluster in Port Elizabeth. Port Elizabeth is still known as the Friendly City. This epithet originated from an effective tourism marketing campaign in the eighties, but as a true description, has become somewhat diminished by the urban decay of the past twenty years. The Friendly City concept refers to a city that presents a healthy mix of work, housing and leisure – a combination of lifestyle offerings that no longer really exist in Port Elizabeth. However, through interventionary initiatives such as the MBDA’s Urban Renewal Plan, this situation is likely to change as a result of catalytic urban developments. Port Elizabeth was built on an internationally competitive motor manufacturing and industrial cluster, but had few other major industries. As such, the creation of an innovative urban renewal cluster was critical for the diversification of its economy – not only from a local economic perspective, but also from a national and international competitiveness point of view. It is the general feeling amongst city planners, economists and industrialists that the current industrial base of Port Elizabeth is not sufficient and that a more diversified economy would have the potential to improve the domestic and global competitiveness of the city. This interaction between the dual goals of economic and urban development, produces farreaching effects on the discourses of urban management and planning, as the two compete and converge to push development forward. Diversification is, however, not an easy endeavour. Considerations around growth-related objectives on planning demands – a shift from the rational, linear and government-based structure of urban management, to an interactive governance of planning and development – where integrated urban and economic strategies inter-play with planning and implementation, has become important in the creation of a more diversified economy. In Port Elizabeth, this approach is referred to as an “alternative method” of urban planning: An approach that involves a process of guided development through a collaborative bottom-up engagement, involving local government, public participation and the private sector. The alternative method of urban planning is further reinforced by the current economic recession, which is, and will continue to, change property development and its response to the needs of the market for the foreseeable future. The solution to urban renewal does not only lie in well-targeted, well-researched public-sector infrastructure investment (that responds strongly to the market and customer needs), but in a joint participatory process that ensures that the final design of infrastructure projects is the outcome of what the market requires, as a means to ensure sustainability and the biggest possible response in private sector investment. Because of global economic forces, the functional and developmental structure of the neighbourhood – where the epicentre of the growth system is situated – has become of paramount significance. This thesis attempts to demonstrate how urban renewal and the redevelopment of designated, formally idle city buildings and public spaces may serve as a site for the creation of an urban growth node or urban cluster. A key focus of this study is how new economic and social growth based structures can be induced to integrate with the process of urban redevelopment. Further demonstrated is that the agenda for urban management, illuminated in the light of the described practices, conducts a fundamental re-appraisal in its local economic development context. Local economic development has been lauded as the saviour of development at a local level in South Africa. LED, however, has by no means utilized the required level of property development pragmatism and has thus, throughout the duration of its approach, not culminated in specific sustainable, capital-driven projects – which is probably one of the reasons for its overall market failure in South Africa and Port Elizabeth. LED has therefore become an outdated economic approach that leaves in its wake, the necessity and opportunity for a fundamental change. Urban renewal and the city’s economic contribution to LED, requires a completely new conceptualisation of urban renewal in its narrow sense, and urban design and planning in its broader sense. Concepts such as redevelopment and urban renewal are frequently used in planning discourse. Redevelopment is understood to encompass actions of clearing (such as slum clearance), reorganising or reconstruction. Renewal signifies rebirth, breaking new ground or innovatively refashioning; a form of re-growing or bringing new and more prolific life. In this thesis, reference is made to urban renewal as an attempt to influence social and economic forces in a desired direction, integrated with planning and development. It re-conceptualises redevelopment as more than a matter of reconstructing an urban arrangement. These concepts are often used in line with the new governance-based style of urban planning, such as guided development, development planning and efforts for enabling the feasibility thereof. This thesis attempts to clarify under what conditions redevelopment is unified with social and economic regeneration. Its approach intends to scrutinise regional strategies, urban management and urban planning to generate an understanding of the urban environment as it relates to growth issues. Many growth-related discourses are discussed in terms of development and innovation. The grammar of this process, when unified with urban development, is referred to as a Dynamic Place Initiative (DPI). In the DPI, issues of feasibility (enablement) are unified in formal government, planning and implementation, restricted to a specific bounded area. The core focus of interest in this thesis is not primarily concerned with architecture and urban design, but rather with the principles of how the process may be implemented as a leverage tool to encourage a range of factors to interact with government agents in an LED-orientated field of action. This field includes not only the built infrastructure, but also the inherent economic and social targets that come with such infrastructure. This thesis discusses economic and innovation theory, as a method of understanding urban development, yet should be understood as an analysis of urban renewal and urban planning. The MBDA case study is a brownfield (redeveloped/renovated) development within an economic cluster of retail, residential, office and tourism/leisure/entertainment. The MBDA uses greenfield (new) development to complement urban renewal and systems of innovation x that endeavour to meet customer needs. The development case aims to focus on its customer (or local community) needs in an all-encompassing approach. Specifically, this includes guided development - a process using well-defined urban design briefs that ensures urban designs are complementary in their overall impact and culminate in a dynamic place initiative. The situation in Port Elizabeth is not unique. On account of global forces of industrial transformation, many countries have, and continue to, find themselves struggling with the renewal of large and redundant inner urban areas that were formerly used for industry and logistics. A typical challenge in this type of context for renewal is to design development schemes that will encourage economic growth and revitalisation within these areas. Although planning, construction and development are systematically methodical activities, economic and social regeneration are more complex. Due to the on-going transformation of the economy in South Africa, the urban context is under constant pressure to change in tandem with pressurised demand for change. The driving forces in the economy are progressing from a nation-orientated and raw-materialbased production origin, which formed the industrial society, to a global, regional and information-orientated urban growth-based structure. The condition of cities has become one of the qualities – or a prominent part of the overall quality – of this so-called knowledge economy. The urban environment, the territorially bounded areas which comprise it and the conditions of the environment within which it exists, are important factors for competitiveness, at both a city and regional level. Observed in reverse, competitiveness has also become a critical factor in achieving complex urban change from a new perspective of economic growth. Cities are the engines of regional and national growth. The economic success of cities and CBDs in South Africa is vital and will effectively ensure the much-needed upgrading of CBD and township infrastructure, using the revenue streams generated during city-centred economic revival. In South Africa (and likely elsewhere in the world), urban renewal is not only about aesthetics, but also about providing a foundation for urban planning, functional architecture and LED. In situations where cities undertake the urban renewal of redundant areas and buildings, economic competitiveness is foremost on the agenda. In order to understand how the forces of production and growth are linked with urban development, it is important to consider the new growth-orientated context for planning. An awareness of these changes and their trends, expressed as a paradigm shift, is reflected in the current discussions concerning the revision of urban planning in South Africa. This specifically targets integration between the previously disadvantaged communities and the advantaged communities. The Strategic Spatial Implementation Framework (SSIF) (2005), often referred to as the “Master Plan” of the MBDA, is an interventionist plan to ensure that the urban renewal infrastructure programme has well-researched projects with a strong catalytic impact leading xi to private sector investment and that thus secure the highest possible economic multiplier impact. Over the past four years, extensive capital has been deployed in Port Elizabeth’s urban infrastructure to lay the foundation for an enabling environment for private sector investment that will culminate in mobilising people to live, work and play in the city again. Public participation and market research have shown that the demand for residential, office, retail and tourism/leisure/entertainment will be directed largely by the black population; more specifically, the “black diamond” middle class anticipated to dominate the future Port Elizabeth economy (MBDA: 2010). It was the initial infrastructure programme in the CBD – which included projects that codepended or linked up with one another, to form a collective whole – which lifted the inner city to another level. It is these urban projects that culminated in renewed interest in the city, inter-linking this interest with the retail, residential, office and tourism/leisure/entertainment customer needs of the city. In most European countries, as in the case of South Africa, urban planning is in the process of transformation, from being a method for regulation and control into becoming a channel for possibilities and enabling development at local level. It is common cause that society needs to be more involved in a city’s planning processes. Tax payers now increasingly demand the use of government funds for infrastructure and the improvement of public areas and open spaces. In the 1980s, the liberal alternative to meet the shortage of tax money was to rely on private investment for urban development. The society used its organisational and planning capacity to encourage market investment through public-private partnerships (PPPs). This strategy is viable in situations where the level of financial risk is low or where conditions are reasonably predictable. Private actors refrain from investment in complex settings where the returns are projected to be far ahead in the future. In South Africa, this is often perceived as a degree of business fatigue; particularly in respect of public-private partnerships. Urban development through private sector investment requires leadership. This can come in the form of the precreation of an enabling environment, i.e. extensive publicly funded basic urban infrastructure investment. Consequently, the urban context requires development to a level where investment can be motivated by core business economic reasoning. In short, other than making social and political sense, urban planning must adhere to financial and economic sense. The society is an important actor and one that has far-sighted motives. In Port Elizabeth, as in the case of many other municipalities, the revenue pool drawn from rates and taxes is simply insufficient to meet the demands of society. The Dynamic Place Initiative represents an alternative that unifies the advantages of the two previous planning discourses. Through a limited agency – such as the MBDA – positioned to guide urban development, the city is enabled to form advanced, politically-set strategies and at the same time, isolate the financial risk through the response of private sector investment. It should be emphasised that the private sector enters the realm of urban development through property actions guided by the planning system. Planning questions ought to be based around the there and then rather than the here and now. The MBDA has become a conduit for dealing with these systems gaps, ensuring that urban and port planning is not limited in focus but speaks to customer needs and makes financial and economic sense. / Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2013 / Town and Regional Planning / unrestricted

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / The Quarterly Labour Force survey by Statistics South Africa (2019) portrays a very bleak future for the South African economy and labour force. The unemployment rate is 27.6% and youth unemployment stands at 55.2%. The National Development Plan (NDP) recognises the relevance of the informal sector and the value that it will contribute to the economy and to solving the challenges of unemployment in South Africa. The NDP projects that the informal sector, which includes domestic work, will create between 1,2 and 2 million new jobs by 2030. Few studies have been conducted on informal trading projects. This study explores the case of a ‗transitional‘ informal enterprise support project aimed at micro-enterprise development wherein 10 informal traders in Cape Town took occupancy of provincial government-sponsored kiosks on 9 May 2016. The Long Street kiosks (LSK) offer 10 traders per year a unique trading opportunity in the CBD free of rent and service charges for a period of one year, with access to a unique and potentially large market. The purpose of this study is to critically examine the role played in the informal enterprise development project by the Western Cape provincial government through its project manager, the Department of Economic Development and Tourism (DEDAT). This research attempts to investigate aspects of project design such as the selection criteria of the informal traders for the project, and selected results such as whether the project provided the traders with enough market exposure to the formal economy and whether their businesses were improved by participation in the project. The qualitative research approach was used for this study of the LSK project, which was a single case study, as both a unit of analysis and as a research method. The study involved a combination of two approaches, namely desktop research followed by interviews and focus group sessions. The study found that a number of limitations and shortcomings in the conduct of the project impacted on the mixed results and success achieved, pertaining to selection criteria, lack of financial and other resources, training, market-related problems, skill set limitations as well as environmental factors such as transport. The study nevertheless cast useful light on potential changes and recommendations that could enhance the project going forward and provides new insights on the complex relationship between the informal and formal economies and their relative potential for addressing the challenges of employment and economic growth.

The explorative case study aims to understand how the reform of business support and development undergoing in Stockholm municipality addresses existing institutions, and to what extent does the institutional context have the potential to adopt and sustain the change. Two case studies, Högdalen industrial area and Årsta wholesale center, illustrate how local economic development is organized in practice. A new policy document, Näringslivspolicy, is analyzed, along with interviews with key public and private agents. Two institutional theoretical frameworks are used: a dynamic perspective on the interaction between regulations and institutions and the concept of institutional thickness. Findings indicate that the examined reform is an example of institutional policymaking as it addresses institutional foundations underlying behavioral practices. Furthermore, empirical evidence shows that the City of Stockholm intends to adopt a place- and problem-based approach to local economic development, but its organizational forms are not specified at this stage. Findings illustrate (not exhaustively) factors of efficient external collaboration that reflect those in recent literature and can be used in future policy revisions. The success of the initiated reform might provide the fundament for improvements in future local economic development initiatives.

Cette thèse doctorale s’attache à fournir une théorisation du Développement Economique Local (DEL) dans les Pays les Moins Avancés (PMA). Elle présente également une synthétisation des conditions et des hypothèses que les programmes et les institutions peuvent provoquer pour obtenir un changement durable dans les territoires. Un tel changement est prévu dans le but de conduire les PMA vers une trajectoire de développement. Le sujet de thèse est placé dans le cadre de la problématique des axes stratégiques du développement local et des choix de sociétés dans les Pays les Moins Avancés.La recherche, qui s’appuie sur une étude de cas de financement de développement local, est réalisée avec quatre sources de données qualitatives collectées de 2014 à 2017 sur le terrain d’une économie moins avancée. La posture épistémologique utilisée commence par déterminer la nature des problèmes identifiés et les spécificités des Pays les Moins Avancés. L’approche constructiviste pragmatique a permis de répondre et d’expliquer des phénomènes observables relatifs aux processus aboutissant au développement économique local suite à des financements appropriés.Les résultats de ce travail ont mis en évidence le cadre empirique du développement local dans les PMA.Les contributions de cette thèse de doctorat sont à plusieurs niveaux. D’abord elles sont d’ordre théorique, à travers un éclairage du système de gouvernance locale dans les Pays les Moins Avancés. Le cadre théorique spécifique aux PMA est approfondi et a permis de développer un ensemble de préconditions du développement local dans les PMA. Ensuite, les contributions de ce travail portent sur les politiques de développement et les politiques publiques.Nous proposons à partir de mécanismes de financements dit « mixtes » des stratégies de financements adaptées aux particularités des PMA en nous basant sur deux piliers du développement local dans les économies les moins avancés : la gouvernance locale et les entrepreneurs. Le modèle théorique et les préconditions au DEL permettent d’avoir une vue d’ensemble des stratégies à mettre en œuvre pour créer le cercle vertueux du DEL dans ces économies. / This doctoral thesis aims to provide a theorization of Local Economic Development (LED) in the Least Developed Countries (LDC). It also presents a synthesis of the conditions and assumptions of programs and institutions to reach transformative and sustainable change in local territories. Such a change is intended to drive the LDCs towards a sound development trajectory. The topic of the thesis is placed within the framework of the strategic options of local development and the choice of societies in the Least Developed Countries.The research, based on a case study of local development financing, is carried out with four qualitative data sources collected from 2014 to 2017 in the field of a less advanced economy. The epistemological posture starts by the nature of the problems identified and the specificities of the Least Developed Countries. The pragmatic constructivist approach made it possible to answer and explain observable phenomena related to the problem of identifying processes leading to local economic development following appropriate funding mechanism.The results of this doctoral research have highlighted an empirical framework for local development in LDCs.The contributions of this doctoral thesis numerous. First, they are of a theoretical nature, through an understanding of the local governance system in the least developed countries. The theoretical framework specific to the LDCs is thus analysed and allows to develop a set of preconditions for local development in the LDCs. Secondly, the contributions of this work deal with development policies and public policies.Indeed, we propose financing strategies adapted to the specificities of LDCs based on the two pillars of local development in the least developed economies: local governance and entrepreneurs, on the so-called "mixed" financing mechanisms. The theoretical model and LED preconditions provide an overview of strategies to implement the virtuous circle of LED in these economies.

No / Local procurement by public bodies is one type of short food supply chain (SFSC), which have been argued to contribute to economic regeneration and local sustainable development. In the current UK policy environment, quantifying actual local economic gains could add much-needed weight to arguments in favour of local procurement in the NHS and other public bodies. To aid such quantification, this paper exemplifies and evaluates the use of a “quick and simple” tool called LM3, designed to measure the local economic benefit of initiatives like SFSCs. LM3 is calculated for the Cornwall Food Programme (CFP), a localised procurement initiative. The findings confirm that the CFP has a considerable impact on the local economy. Notwithstanding this conclusion, difficulties in data collection combined with inaccuracies inherent to the LM3 process created a large margin of error in the findings. Moreover, a qualitative evaluation of the CFP added a valuable understanding of the wider economic impact of the CFP. The use of an even simpler and more reliable “LM2” multiplier tool is recommended for future studies, accompanied by some qualitative evaluation to create a fuller picture of local economic impacts.

Rural areas, globally, are characterized as poor regions, with two-thirds of the world’s poor people residing in rural areas. In South Africa, 70 percent of the poor population or 3.6 million households, live in rural areas. In the last three State of the Nation Addresses (SONA) in South Africa by President Zuma since 2011, rural development has been placed high on government’s developmental agenda. The formulation of a comprehensive rural development policy, with coordinated implementation by all spheres of government is however still lacking. This research project was undertaken to explore solutions for the revival and development of rural areas in South Africa. The northern Free State region was selected as the geographical focus area and “testing ground” for the research. Rural South Africa has been deteriorating over the last few decades mainly due to globalization and urbanization. Two specific tools to achieve accelerated rural development were identified and analysed namely, local economic development (LED) and spatial planning. The research has shown that rural development is a complicated and difficult process. It is not only about agriculture and economic development, but also about other aspects such as spatial planning, social development, the environment, politics and public management aspects. For the purpose of the research, the theoretical statement was stated as “the chronic state of underdevelopment, poverty and unemployment, especially in rural South Africa, with a specific focus on the northern Free State, can be turned around by means of the implementation of revitalization strategies, which include innovative policies and programmes of LED and spatial planning”. Rural development requires strong committed local leaders and “champions”, skills, patience and funding. The research methodology included a comprehensive theoretical analysis of the concepts relating to rural development, as well as global and local case studies. Local rural development policies were also analysed as currently being implemented by government. Primary research included a community socio-economic survey in the study area to determine levels of rural poverty, unemployment, services delivered by local government and skills. In this survey of poor rural areas and the socio-economic analysis of the northern Free State, it was found that: • close to 50% of all households were living in poverty, • 50.7% of all households lack employment, • 40% of households have an income of less than R 1 500 per month, • The average annual household income in the area relates to just less than R20 000, • The ratio between formal and informal jobs is 1: 0.25, which indicates a low level of informal job opportunities, • Most job opportunities are found in agriculture, manufacturing, community services and households. • The tourism sector only provides in 3.1% of the regional GDP. Local business chambers were also visited in order to determine their perceptions of rural development and local government as well as the level of partnerships with the various local authorities in the area. It was found that partnership formation and cooperation between local business chambers and local authorities in the region were limited, although business chambers are willing to cooperate and assist. Rural development needs a coordinated effort and partnerships between government, business and communities. The focus of the research was on the finding of possible solutions for rural development. Solutions such as a rapid rural assessment (RRA) and a strategy for the study area, which has been provided to the specific local government for implementation, have been formulated. Globally and locally no universally accepted definition of rural concepts such as rural development and rural regions exist. Definitions and classifications of rural areas were formulated for South African conditions. A major component of the research is the proposed rural development model known as the “Feza iSimangaliso” model. Pillars for rural development and best practice aspects for rural development were also formulated. Some of the main findings of the research regarding general rural development aspects are listed below: • Rural regions are slowly but surely becoming in “fashion” as popular regions again due to a number of reasons such as quality environments, the need for a sense of community and belonging and food security. • Well formulated strategic rural development strategies, which are implementable in a coordinated way, can make a positive impact. Rural areas could be seen as a viable alternative, but requires strong governance, especially at the local sphere. • The integration of spatial planning and LED could lead to accelerate rural development, especially when national policy exists and are implemented in a coordinated manner. • The creation of jobs will lead to improved quality of life. Labour intensive sectors of the economy such as tourism, agriculture including agro-processing, manufacturing and retail should be the focus of an economic strategy. • Rural development is dependent on hard and soft infrastructure provision and strong local government. • Rural development must be people centred, with the utilization of local indigenous knowledge. • Rural towns are critical for rural regional development and creation of rural-urban linkages. • The “pull factors” to rural areas include quality of life and environment, sense of belonging, unique culture and history, and a positive economic environment. Future research projects could include more detailed research on the study area and provision of assistance to the relevant local municipalities. A possible rural development matrix will be developed for the evaluation of the level of development and gaps in the development of a rural region. In conclusion, successful rural development planning must be based on strategic planning principles for implementation in order to prevent ad hoc implementation of isolated projects with limited impacts. / PhD (Public Management and Governance), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013

Thesis (M.Dev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2003 / Refer to document

Thesis (M. Dev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2002. / Refer to the document