Le Titano-Zirconate de Plomb, ou PZT est un matériau piézoélectrique présentant de très bonnes performances pour l'actionnement des microsystèmes. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous nous proposons de répondre à la problématique de l'intégration du PZT par dépôt sol-gel. Dans une première partie, nous présenterons l'état de l'art des MEMS piézoélectriques et du PZT. Dans une seconde partie, nous montrerons comment obtenir des couches minces de PZT orientées (100) et (1111) de façon homogène, pour une des épaisseurs de 100 nm à 2µm. Dans une troisième partie, nous comparerons les propriétés ferroélectriques et piézoélectriques des films, en fonction de l'orientation. Pour l'orientation (100), nous avons pu mesurer un coefficient d31 supérieur à -150 pm/V et un coefficient e31,f de -16 C/m2. Pour l'orientation (111), nous avons mesuré un d31 de -100 pm/V et un e31,f de -14 C/m2. Pour expliquer les différences observées, nous avons également abordé le problème du blocage des parois de domaines. Dans une quatrième partie, nous présentons la fabrication et la caractérisation d'un interrupteur MEMS radiofréquences packagé et stabilisé en température fonctionnant à basse tension. A l'état bloqué, il présente une isolation de -44 dB à 2 GHz. A l'état passant, il présente des pertes d'insertion de -0.74 dB à 2 GHz. Dans cette partie, nous présentons également l'intégration d'une jauge de contraintes dans un actionneur piézoélectrique. Dans la dernière partie, nous présentons l'intégration de nos procédés dans des membranes sans dégradation des performances. Une étude préliminaire de fiabilité est également menée. Le mécanisme conduisant à la dégradation de nos composants est lié au vieillissement du matériau, ce qui montre que notre procédé de dépôt est maitrisé de façon homogène sur des substrats 200 mm. / PZT is a piezoelectric material which exhibits very good performances for microsystems actuation. In this work, the problem of sol-gel deposited PZT integration is discussed. First, state of the art of piezoelectric MEMS and PZT is presented. Then, the fabrication of homogeneous (100) and (111) oriented PZT thin films is presented. Layers thicknesses are comprised between 100 nm and 2 µm. Thirdly, ferroelectric and piezoelectric properties of the two oriented thin films are compared. For (100) oriented films, the d31 piezoelectric coefficient was greater than -150 pm/V and the e31,f reaches -16 C/m2. For (111) oriented films, the d31 and e31,f reach -100 pm/V and -14 C/m2 respectively. To explain observed differences, domain walls pinning was studied. Next, fabrication and characterization of a low voltage, fully packaged and thermally stabilized RF MEMS piezoelectric switch is presented. At the off-state, the switch isolation is -44 dB at 2 GHz. At the on-state, insertion losses are -0.74 dB at 2 GHz. The integration of a metallic gauge in a piezoelectric cantilever is also presented. Finally, developed processes are integrated in membranes fabrication without any degradation. A preliminary reliability study is presented. The fail mechanism of our components is an aging mechanism. This shows that our sol-gel deposition process is well-controlled on 8 inches wafers.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:22:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-11-17Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T18:49:33Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 mertensjunior_ea_me_ilha.pdf: 1934720 bytes, checksum: fe7d7a9f65b7d36be8112ffea7f317ae (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O presente trabalho avalia a viabilidade técnica da aplicação de compensação reativa em circuitos secundários aéreos de baixa tensão, através da aplicação de capacitores e / ou filtros para aplicação em Baixa Tensão, buscando assim uma otimização dos reativos presentes nas redes secundárias. Considerando-se as constantes mudanças que vêm ocorrendo no cenário de distribuição de energia elétrica, devido ao grande avanço da eletrônica de potência e de cargas não lineares cada vez mais presentes no sistema elétrico, fazem-se necessários estudos para diagnosticar como e em que níveis tais mudanças podem estar afetando as características das redes de distribuição. Verifica-se que tais cargas, possuem um baixo fator de potência, e podem aumentar significativamente o nível de correntes harmônicas devido às técnicas de chaveamento utilizadas nestes dispositivos. Com isto, acentuam-se os problemas da propagação das distorções de forma de onda das correntes às tensões da rede, além de aumentar consideravelmente as perdas de energia elétrica ao longo de seus condutores e transformadores. Há necessidade de se conhecer as características dessas cargas de forma a permitir a correta modelagem das mesmas. O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar o perfil da rede secundária frente aos níveis de harmônicos e fator de potência, permitindo a adequada aplicação de filtros e capacitores para instalação no secundário dos transformadores de distribuição, visando a correção do fator de potência nos circuitos, redução do reativo circulante, das perdas elétricas e eventualmente dos níveis de distorção harmônica. Avaliando-se as interferências no carregamento dos transformadores de distribuição e melhoria do perfil da tensão de alimentação. Neste sentido, foi feita uma campanha de monitoramento em alguns circuitos selecionados... / This paper seeks to evaluate the technical feasibility of applying for compensation reactive side air circuits in low-voltage, by the application of capacitors and / or filters for use in the Low Voltage, thereby seeking an optimization of reactive present in the secondary networks. Analysis with a focus on secondary distribution network should consider a new factor, which is the proliferation of non-linear loads. Considering the constant changes that are occurring in the scenario of distribution of electric energy, due to the general advancement of power electronics and nonlinear loads increasingly present in the electrical system, are made necessary studies to diagnose how and to what levels such changes may be affecting the characteristics of distribution networks. It appears that such loads, have a low power factor, and can significantly increase the level of harmonic currents because of the techniques used in these switching devices. With this, stressing the problems of the spread of distortions of waveform of the current tensions to the network, in addition to considerably increase the loss of power over their drivers and processors. Thus, the objective of this study is to identify the profile of the network front secondary levels of harmonics and power factor, allowing the proper implementation of filters and capacitors for installation of transformers in the secondary distribution, aiming to correct the power factor in circuits, Reducing the reactive stock, loss of electrical and possibly the levels of harmonic distortion. Judging is interference in the shipment of processors for distribution and improving the profile of the supply voltage. In this sense, there was a campaign tracking in some selected circuits, computer simulations were also conducted, equipment developed and deployed pilot projects.

Submitted by Agustin Valverde Granja (agustin.valverde@unibague.edu.co) on 2017-06-28T14:11:40Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tesis Agustin Valverde Granja.pdf: 5383238 bytes, checksum: fc4a71b7db5d1316ec5199f86e031e0f (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luiz Galeffi (luizgaleffi@gmail.com) on 2017-06-28T20:34:40Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 valverdegranja_a_dr_guara.pdf: 5383238 bytes, checksum: fc4a71b7db5d1316ec5199f86e031e0f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-28T20:34:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 valverdegranja_a_dr_guara.pdf: 5383238 bytes, checksum: fc4a71b7db5d1316ec5199f86e031e0f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-06-23 / Esta Tese de Doutorado apresentou o estudo dos problemas de tensão originados no ponto comum de conexão de uma rede experimental para fornecer até 1.000 kWh/mês de energia solar com a rede de baixa tensão da Universidade de Ibagué, na Colômbia. Inicialmente foi feita uma introdução, onde destacou-se a importância da geração distribuída, os problemas gerados e os objetivos propostos. Em seguida, foi realizado o estudo da qualidade da energia na rede de baixa tensão, conforme as normas NTC 5001. Foi dimensionada, montada e colocada em operação uma rede experimental, utilizando a metodologia proposta nesta Tese, composta de 30 painéis solares de 260 W marca IBC solar, um inversor marca Fronius de 7,6 kW e um contador bidirecional ligados diretamente à rede através com fio de seção transversal de 6,0 mm2. A energia máxima produzida pela rede experimental foi de 850 kWh/mês, equivalente a 72,65% do total da capacidade instalada. Os painéis solares apresentaram uma eficiência média de 15,7%, a eficiência do inversor foi obtida na faixa de 75 a 94% e o desempenho global, PR, entre 0,83 e 1,30. Depois de avaliar a rede experimental seguiu-se com a análise da qualidade da energia no ponto comum de ligação registrando, em relação às perturbações de longa duração, um aumento de 2%; o desequilíbrio da tensão diminuiu 3,5%, as harmônicas de tensão aumentaram 7% na linha U1, 0,8% na linha U2 e 3% na linha U3. Em relação à corrente harmônica foi evidenciado um incremento de 22% na linha U1. Nos valores das cintilações de curto e longo prazo. Para os picos e interrupções de longa duração não foram encontrados diferenças significativas. Nas perturbações rápidas a potência ativa e reativa total no período do recesso aumentaram 58% e 42% respectivamente. A análise termográfica permitiu estabelecer um aumento da temperatura no ponto comum de ligação à rede de 7,5%. A temperatura superficial do painél foi calculada a partir do modelo matemático proposto neste trabalho para a cidade de Ibagué. O modelo foi resultado de uma análise estatística com o software Minitab e utilizou os dados da variação da radiação solar e da temperatura ambiente. Quando a temperatura do painel foi maior que a temperatura ambiente, a porcentagem de erro do modelo foi de 14,09%. O análise econômica permitiu estabelecer os custos de investimento por kWp instalado na rede experimental com ovalor de 2100 USD/kWp. O valor presente líquido (VPL) começou a apresemtar valores positivos a partir de 6,3 anos e a taxa interna de retorno (TIR) calculada para este projeto foi de 17,8%. Espera-se que as experiências no projeto possam servir de referência na aplicação da lei 1715 do governo Colombiano para o aproveitamento da energia solar. / This doctoral thesis presented the study of voltage problems originating from the common point of connection of an experimental network to provide up to 1,000 kWh / month of solar energy with the low voltage network of the University of Ibague in Colombia. Initially an introduction was made, highlighting the importance of distributed generation, the problems generated and the proposed objectives. Next, the study of the quality of the energy in the low voltage network was carried out, according to the norms NTC 5001. An experimental network was dimensioned, assembled and put into operation using the methodology proposed in this thesis, composed of 30 solar panels of 260 W brand IBC solar, a Fronius brand inverter of 7.6 kW and a bidirectional counter connected directly to the network through thread of cross-section of 6.0 mm2. The maximum energy produced by the experimental network was 850 kWh / month, equivalent to 72.65% of the total installed capacity. The solar panels had an average efficiency of 15.7%, the efficiency of the inverter was obtained in the range of 75 to 94% and the overall performance, PR, between 0.83 and 1.30. After evaluating the experimental network, it was followed by the analysis of the quality of the energy at the common point of connection, in relation to long-term disturbances, an increase of 2%; the voltage unbalance decreased by 3.5%, voltage harmonics increased by 7% in line U1, 0.8% in line U2 and 3% in line U3. In relation to the harmonic current, an increase of 22% in line U1 was evidenced. In the values of short and long term scintillations. For peaks and long-term interruptions no significant differences were found. In the fast perturbations the total active and reactive power in the period of the recess increased 58% and 42% respectively. The thermal analysis allowed to establish an increase in temperature at the common point of connection to the network of 7.5%. The surface temperature of the panel was calculated from the mathematical model proposed in this work for the city of Ibagué. The model was the result of a statistical analysis with Minitab software and used the data of solar radiation variation and ambient temperature. When the panel temperature was higher than the ambient temperature, the model error percentage was 14.09%. The economic analysis allowed us to establish the investment costs per kWp installed in the experimental network with a value of 2100 USD / kWp. The net present value (NPV) began to show positive values from 6.3 years and the internal rate of return (TIR) calculated for this project was 17.8%. It is hoped that the experiences in the project can serve as reference in the application of law 1715 of the Colombian government for the exploitation of solar energy.

Submitted by JAIMIS SAJID LEON COLQUI null (jeimis.leon@gmail.com) on 2017-06-30T12:04:16Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação_Jaimis Leon_Eng_Eletrica.pdf: 1870541 bytes, checksum: cb3fb21a21d28fea6773b5e6d6b213bd (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luiz Galeffi (luizgaleffi@gmail.com) on 2017-06-30T14:27:39Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 leoncolqui_js_me_ilha.pdf: 1870541 bytes, checksum: cb3fb21a21d28fea6773b5e6d6b213bd (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-30T14:27:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 leoncolqui_js_me_ilha.pdf: 1870541 bytes, checksum: cb3fb21a21d28fea6773b5e6d6b213bd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-01-30 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Este trabalho apresenta uma proposta de estratégia global de controle de tensão que emprega programação não linear e duas extensões de estratégias de controle de tensão, encontrados na literatura. O principal objetivo destas estratégias é solucionar o problema de aumento de tensão nas redes de distribuição de baixa tensão, causado pela injeção de potência do gerador fotovoltaico distribuído. Estas estratégias de controle de tensão foram implementadas e analisadas a fim de verificar a sua eficácia e comparar os seus comportamentos. Para os testes, foram considerados a operação de geradores fotovoltaicos monofásicos e trifásicos distribuídos em um sistema teste de distribuição em baixa tensão. Os resultados mostraram que depois da aplicação das estratégias de controle, os perfis de tensão em regime permanente ficaram dentro da faixa de tensão permitida, obtendo-se uma mínima redução de potência ativa injetada dos geradores fotovoltaicos com os seus correspondentes fatores de potência. / This work presents a proposal of a global voltage control strategy that use nonlinear programming and two extensions of voltage control strategies that are found in the literature. The main objective of these strategies is to solve the problem of voltage increase in low voltage distribution networks, caused by the power injection of the distributed photovoltaic generator. These voltage control strategies have been implemented and analyzed in order to verify their effectiveness and compare their behaviors. For the test, the operation of single-phase and three-phase photovoltaic generators distributed in a low voltage distribution test system were considered. The results showed that after the application of the control strategies, the steady-state voltage profiles were whihin the allowed voltage range, obtaining a minimum reduction of the active power injection of the photovoltaic generators with their corresponding powe factors.

The aim of this study was to define and examin the capabilities of the low voltage transmission electron microscope LVEM 5 in the detection and identification of viruses, taking into consideration various contrasting agents, and a comparison to data from HV TEM.

Orientadores: Jose Antenor Pomilio, Saulo Finco / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Eletrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-09T03:34:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mioni_DanielPasti_M.pdf: 1903299 bytes, checksum: 7343c6fb1cd22aa8df8654d5b9b51852 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: Desenvolvemos um amplificador de áudio classe D baseado em moduladores S-?, destinado a aparelhos auditivos, a maioria dos quais utiliza baterias de 1,1V e necessita ter baixo consumo de corrente. Neste trabalho os amplificadores e comparadores foram construídos com inversores CMOS, pois um destes inversores, alimentado com uma tensão de 1,1V, pode consumir uma corrente CC tão baixa quanto 400nA, dependendo das dimensões, e proporcionar alto ganho de tensão quando polarizado em sua região linear de operação. Por estes motivos, podem substituir com vantagem amplificadores operacionais e comparadores em algumas aplicações. Um protótipo deste circuito foi implementado com tecnologia CMOS 0,35µm e alcançou um rendimento de 90% / Abstract: This thesis presents the design of a firstorder S-? audioband power amplifier optimized for hearing aid (HA) amplification. The majority of HAs use a 1.1V battery and require very low current consumption to improve battery life. This work made use of amplifiers and comparators based on CMOS inverters because such an inverter, with a 1.1V battery, can operate on a current as low as 400nA, depending on its dimensions, and provide high voltage gain when biased in their linear region. For these reasons, they can substitute with advantage operational amplifiers in some applications. A prototype of this circuit was implemented in a monolithic chip using 0.35µm CMOS technology and achieved 90% of power efficiency / Mestrado / Eletrônica, Microeletrônica e Optoeletrônica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

Este trabalho está dividido em duas partes distintas que constituem contribuições inéditas ao estudo da estabilidade em sistemas elétricos de potência. A primeira parte do trabalho é a mais importante e trata do problema da identificação das soluções de baixa tensão críticas do fluxo de carga. Esta parte do trabalho se presta a análise de estabilidade de tensão a pequenas perturbações. Os últimos capítulos deste trabalho apresentam também uma proposta de função energia estendida que modela as cargas dependentes da tensão segundo o modelo ZIP de carga, considerando a estrutura da rede preservada. Assim, a função energia proposta pode ser utilizada para analisar tanto a estabilidade de tensão como a estabilidade de ângulo em sistemas de potência. Esta proposta também é inédita na literatura. Embora a função energia proposta tenha sido aplicada apenas a sistemas de dimensão reduzidas, os resultados apresentados neste trabalho nos levam a acreditar que essa mesma função energia pode ser utilizada na análise de estabilidade de sistemas de potência de grandes dimensões. Já o método proposto para identificação das soluções de baixa tensão das equações de fluxo de carga se utiliza de um sistema dinâmico auxiliar das equações de fluxo de carga. O sistema dinâmico auxiliar utilizado não tem significado físico, mas pode ser escolhido de tal forma que a solução usual das equações de fluxo de carga seja um ponto de equilíbrio estável do sistema dinâmico auxiliar, eque as soluções de baixa tensão do fluxo de carga sejam pontos de equilíbrio instáveis do sistema dinâmico auxiliar. Dessa forma, é possível calcular as soluções de baixa tensão do fluxo de carga, calculando-se os pontos de equilíbrio instáveis do sistema dinâmico auxiliar. Assim, é possível utilizar partes da teoria de sistemas dinâmicos para estudar as soluções das equações de fluxo de carga. Baseado nestes princípios, foi desenvolvido um programa para calcular trajetórias do sistema dinâmico auxiliar, que se iniciam e se mantêm nas vizinhanças da fronteira da área de atração do ponto de equilíbrio estável do SEP. Dessa forma é possível afirmar que a trajetória calculada tende a convergir para a solução crítica das equações de fluxo de carga. O programa foi inicialmente concebido para calcular as soluções de baixa tensão de sistemas elétricos sem perdas. Em seguida o programa desenvolvido foi adaptado para calcular as soluções de baixa tensão de sistemas de potência completos, incluindo também as resistências das linhas de transmissão. Esta última versão do programa foi testada para os sistemas IEEE 39 e IEEE 118 barras, e os resultados obtidos se mostraram bastante satisfatórios. Assim, o método proposto é uma ferramenta original e eficaz para a solução do problema de calcular a solução crítica das equações de fluxo de carga de sistemas elétricos de potência. / This work may be divided into two distinct parts. Both of them are new contributions to stability analysis of power systems. In the first part it is proposed a new method to calculate the critical load flow low voltage solutions, and it is the main part of this work. Meanwhile, the last two chapters of this work presents a proposed extended energy function that consider the common load ZIP models. It allows the analysis of angle and voltage stability for power systems subjected to large disturbances. This work proposes a method to calculate the low voltage solutions (LVS) of the load flow equations of an electrical power system. The proposed method identifies the LVS involved in the saddle-node bifurcation leading the power system to a voltage collapse. This solution is known as the critical low voltage solution. In order to perform the proposed calculation, an auxiliary dynamical gradient system is used. It is shown that the equilibrium points of that associated auxiliary dynamical gradient system are the solutions of the load flow equations. In such manner, the paper proposes identifying the critical LVS calculating the equilibrium points of an auxiliary dynamical gradient system. The proposed method was tested on the Stagg 5-bus, on the IEEE 39-bus and on IEEE 118-bus test systems, and the results are presented at the end of the text.

In recent years there has been a large increase in the connection of photovoltaic generators to the low voltage distribution network in urban residential areas. In the future, it is predicted that this trend will continue and be accompanied with a rise in the uptake and connection of electric vehicles and heat pumps. Recently, monitoring trials have found widespread current unbalance in the feeders that transmit electrical energy to and from these urban residential areas. This unbalance is likely to be accentuated by the gradual and piecemeal uptake of the aforementioned devices. The combined impact of the changes and present day unbalance is likely to be more frequent thermal and voltage constraint violations unless new strategies are adopted to manage the flow of electrical energy. Here, a novel device named the 'phase switcher' that has no customer compliance requirements is proposed as a new tool for distribution network operators to manage the thermal and voltage constraints of cables. The phase switcher is shown to unlock cable ampacity and maximise voltage headroom and it achieves this through phase balancing in real time. A centralised local feeder controller is simulated to employ dynamic and scheduled phase switcher control algorithms on a real network model, and it's ability to unlock cable ampacity and reduce cable losses is quantified. Also, a small model based controller algorithm is presented and shown to perform almost as well as others despite having a very limited sensing and communication system requirement. Phase switchers are also quantified for their ability to increase feeder voltage headroom when employed to improve the balance of photovoltaic distributed generators across phases. To this end, an exhaustive offline photovoltaic capacity prediction technique is documented which shows that when phase switchers are placed explicitly to a known photovoltaic installation scenario, an almost linear relationship exists between the penetration level and maximum node voltage when PSs or phase conductor rejointing is considered as an option for implementation. Finally, a fast feeder assessment algorithm is detailed that is found to be better and more robust at estimating extreme maximum and minimum photovoltaic penetration level scenarios that cause over-voltage. All the work is presented within a new general mathematical framework that facilitates formulation of the problem and calculation of device phase connections for networks containing phase switchers.

DC system and DC microgrids are gaining popularity in recent times. This thesis suggests a method to state the workability of a DC based PV system using the softwares Simulink, PVsyst and HOMER. The aims of this project include suggesting a DC based architecture, finding out the performance ratio and a cost analysis. The advantages of the DC based system, the cost benefits associated with it and its performance will determine its feasibility.   Not many softwares have the functionality to simulate DC based PV systems. PVsyst is considered as one of the most sought-out softwares for the simulation of PV systems. It can simulate a DC based PV system but has a lot of limitations when it comes to the architecture and voltage levels. Due to these factors, the results from softwares Simulink, Homer and PVsyst are used to calculate the performance ratio of the suggested DC system.    The simulation of the DC system involves modelling of a DC-DC converter. DC-DC converters are used in HVDC transmission and are being considered for small scale and medium scale microgrids. The DC-DC boost converter is coupled with a MPPT model in Simulink. P and O algorithm is chosen as the MPPT algorithm as it is simple and widely used. The Simulink model of PV array and MPPT based boost converter provides the power output at the needed voltage level of 350V. The input for the Simulink model is obtained from the results of HOMER. The inputs include solar irradiation data and cell temperature. The same input data is used for the simulations in HOMER and PVsyst. The performance ratio is obtained by combining the power output from Simulink with the other aspects of the system from PVsyst. The performance ratio is done only for the month of January due to the limitations in Simulink. The performance ratio is found out to be 65.5 %.   The cost estimation is done for the distribution and power electronics aspects of the system. It is found out that the cost associated with the conductors will have an impact on the total cost only if the conductors used for distribution is more in length. The cost associated with the power converters will make a difference in total cost only if the system is within the range of 100kW. The study shows the workability of the PV based DC system based on the above mentioned aspects

The monitoring and control of low voltage distribution grids has historically been disregarded due to the unidirectional flow of power. However, nowadays the massive integration of distributed energy resources into distribution grids, such as solar photovoltaics, distributed storage, electric vehicles and demand response programs, presents some challenges. For instance, the unidirectional top-down power flow is being replaced by power flows in any direction: top-down and bottom-up. This paradigm shift adds extra regulatory, economic, and technical complexity for the Distribution System Operators (DSO). Thus to overcome the possible operational constraints, thermal limits, or voltage problems in the grid, an update of the existing electricity infrastructures is required. In response to this new situation, this thesis investigates the cost-effective communication and control architectures that are required for active low voltage grid monitoring and control applications, considering the regulatory constraints and the efficient utilization of the assets from a DSO’s perspective. The solutions include: i) optimal sensor placement configuration to perform low voltage state estimation, ii) optimal metering infrastructure designs for active low voltage monitoring applications, iii) coordinated control strategies to allow the integration of microgrid-like structures into the distribution grids, iv) optimal placement of actuators for operating the control strategies, v) a multiagent-based control solution for self-healing and feeder reconfiguration applications, and vi) a framework model and simulations to assess the reliability of the ICT infrastructure that enables the monitoring and control applications. As concluding remark, since the deployment of technology at low voltage grids is restricted to assets owned by the DSO, the operability of the grid is limited. This condition makes it so that the required communication and control enhancement solutions shall prioritize cost-effectiveness over comprehensiveness and complexity. Thus, the results from the presented studies show that it is essential to perform thorough cost-benefit analyses of the potential improvement solutions for each grid, because this will allow deploying the right technology only at the necessary locations. / <p>QC 20171106</p><p></p>