Noncompete agreements are elements of workers' contracts that limit the worker's job mobility in the event of a job separation. In this dissertation, I address two major questions: first, why are noncompete agreements used, especially among workers earning low wages? Second, what are the ramifications of use of noncompete agreements, both for the firms using them and for the markets in which those firms exist? In the first chapter, co-authored with Matthew Johnson, I show that low wage workers sign noncompete agreements when their wages are constrained. I use a novel sample of owners of hair salons to empirically demonstrate that, when wage constraints are more binding due to a greater minimum wage or a greater labor supply, noncompete agreements are used more frequently. I show that use in this context may not maximize the firm's joint surplus, suggesting that policy interventions may be welfare-enhancing. In the second chapter, I generalize the theory of the first chapter, allowing for intertemporal changes in labor markets. I posit the existence of noncompete agreement cycles, which may explain recent trends in use among low wage employees. In a noncompete agreement cycle, workers who separate must exit the labor market. Low labor supply decreases use of noncompete agreements, allowing labor supply to increase and leading to use of noncompete agreements once again. I examine the costs and benefits of a policy prohibiting NCAs, analyzing such a policy's sensitivity to various parameters. In the final chapter, I consider the effects of noncompete agreements on the effort exertion of workers. If a worker is able to exert effort in order to increase the value of an asset, that worker may wish to spin off a new firm to leverage its value. The worker's current employer faces a tradeoff: a noncompete agreement induces the employee to stay but decreases the employee's incentive to exert effort. I show that, when the value of a spinoff is unknown ex ante, noncompete agreements may cause large ex post efficiency losses by limiting creation of highly profitable spinoffs.

What relationship exists between working conditions and teacher turnover in child-care (early care and education) programs? Research has shown high staff turnover is a major factor affecting the quality of care. Using a new survey and data set I designed of union and randomly selected non-union programs in Massachusetts, I examine factors other than compensation that might be related to lower teacher turnover. Focusing on different institutional settings, including unionization and regional unemployment, I use economist Albert Hirschman’s theory of exit, voice and loyalty to see if “voice” alternatives to quitting are an effective method of reducing exits. “Voice” alternatives studied include working relationships and practices between management and labor; identified paths for promotion and compensation; and processes for making decisions and addressing grievances. I discuss three research questions: What working conditions or practices affect teacher turnover in child-care programs in the private market? Results indicate the presence and type of worker voice affects teacher turnover. Programs with collective bargaining agreements have lower rates of turnover than those without. Unionized programs also employ more staff per child, pay higher wages, and serve a higher percentage of state-subsidized children. How does “voice” differ in nature and quantity across different types of workplaces? I find there is more voice in unionized programs. Also different voice practices are used in programs operating in a high-unemployment compared to a lowunemployment environment. What, if any, is the statistical relationship (correlation) between teacher turnover and voice, and how does this relationship vary across workplaces? My results show a consistently negative relationship between teacher turnover and voice in these workplaces even when controlling for wages. Programs with more voice aspects have less teacher turnover.

Förflyttning av fabriksarbeten till låglöneländer har varit en vanligt förekommande diskussion den senaste tiden. Idag kan vi se denna trend utvecklas ytterligare till förflyttning av affärsprocesser. En av dessa processer som varit omdiskuterad på senare tid är Forskning och Utveckling, FoU. Trots att FoU bland annat innefattar kunskap och kompetens och det faktum att Sverige är känt för att vara ett land med hög kompetens och framgångsrika högteknologiska företag tycks en stor oro kring risken för utflyttning av högkvalitativa arbeten till låglöneländer förekomma. Genom en kvalitativ studie med en reflexiv metodologi kombinerad med en abduktiv metod har frågan vad FoU-trenden innebär och vilka, från svenska företags perspektiv gällande kompetens och kunskap, hot och möjligheter som finns i denna trend besvarats. Från de tre olika synvinklarna; respondenter arbetandes utanför företag, respondenter arbetandes i företag och respondenter arbetandes nära företag, samlade vi information om det aktuella ämnet och fann sex områden från vilka användbar information kunde användas för att besvara studiens syfte; offshore-trenden, internationalisering av FoU, kostnad kontra kvalitet, kompetens/kunskap, nätverk samt möjligheter respektive hot. Det finns ingen säkerställd information kring internationaliseringens proportioner men en tendens till förflyttning av företag kan fortfarande urskiljas. Detta leder dock även till ett ökat antal utlandsägda företag i Sverige, vilket kan resultera i en bredare och djupare kunskapsbas i landet. Svårigheterna att förflytta kunskap tycks vara ett problem och i takt med att låglöneländernas kompetens ökar kan det vara aktuellt att flytta delar av FoU-enheter. Det är därför av stor vikt att vara flexibel och föränderlig för att ha möjligheten att förbli konkurrenskraftig på den globala marknaden. Vidare spelar nätverk en viktig roll vad gäller global konkurrens eftersom dessa kan leda till ökade kunskaper och möjligheter. Jakten på minskade kostnader och ökad kompetens kommer förmodligen alltid vara ett faktum. Det viktigaste under dagens globala förändringar och nya verklighet är dock att inte tolka förändringarna som hot utan som möjligheter. / The relocation of manufacturing professions in favour of low-wage countries have been a frequent discussion lately. Today we see the trend develop even further, towards relocation of business processes. One of these business processes that have been up for discussion in recent times is Research and Development, R&D. Although R&D is among others built on knowledge and compe-tence and Sweden are known for being a country with high competence and successful high technology companies, a huge worry appears to exist about the risk of loosing highly qualified positions to low-wage countries. By a qualitative study with a reflexive methodology way of thinking combined with an abductive method, we have answered the question what the R&D offshore trend signifies and what, from a Swedish companies’ perspective, considering competence and knowledge, threats and opportunities there are in this trend. From the three different viewpoints; respondents working outside companies, respondents working inside companies, and respondents working close to companies we gained information about the subject in matter and distinguished six areas from were useful information could be gathered in order to fulfil the purpose of the study; the offshore trend, R&D internationalization, cost versus quality, competence/knowledge, networks, and opportunities and threats. There is no ensured knowledge of the internationalization proportions but there is still a tendency to relocation of companies. However, this also lead to an increased number of foreign owned companies in Sweden, which may result in a wider and deeper knowledge base in the country. The difficulties in transferring knowledge seem to be an issue and while low-wage countries’ competence increases there might be in question to relocate part of R&D units. It is therefore of huge importance to stay flexible and responsiveness to be able to stay competitive at the global market. Further net-works play an important role when competing globally since these may contribute to increased knowledge and better opportunities. The chase towards decreased costs and increased competence will always be a fact. However, the most important during today’s international changes and the new reality is to not interpret the changes as threats but as opportunities.

<p>Förflyttning av fabriksarbeten till låglöneländer har varit en vanligt förekommande diskussion den senaste tiden. Idag kan vi se denna trend utvecklas ytterligare till förflyttning av affärsprocesser. En av dessa processer som varit omdiskuterad på senare tid är Forskning och Utveckling, FoU. Trots att FoU bland annat innefattar kunskap och kompetens och det faktum att Sverige är känt för att vara ett land med hög kompetens och framgångsrika högteknologiska företag tycks en stor oro kring risken för utflyttning av högkvalitativa arbeten till låglöneländer förekomma. Genom en kvalitativ studie med en reflexiv metodologi kombinerad med en abduktiv metod har frågan vad FoU-trenden innebär och vilka, från svenska företags perspektiv gällande kompetens och kunskap, hot och möjligheter som finns i denna trend besvarats. Från de tre olika synvinklarna; respondenter arbetandes utanför företag, respondenter arbetandes i företag och respondenter arbetandes nära företag, samlade vi information om det aktuella ämnet och fann sex områden från vilka användbar information kunde användas för att besvara studiens syfte; offshore-trenden, internationalisering av FoU, kostnad kontra kvalitet, kompetens/kunskap, nätverk samt möjligheter respektive hot. Det finns ingen säkerställd information kring internationaliseringens proportioner men en tendens till förflyttning av företag kan fortfarande urskiljas. Detta leder dock även till ett ökat antal utlandsägda företag i Sverige, vilket kan resultera i en bredare och djupare kunskapsbas i landet. Svårigheterna att förflytta kunskap tycks vara ett problem och i takt med att låglöneländernas kompetens ökar kan det vara aktuellt att flytta delar av FoU-enheter. Det är därför av stor vikt att vara flexibel och föränderlig för att ha möjligheten att förbli konkurrenskraftig på den globala marknaden. Vidare spelar nätverk en viktig roll vad gäller global konkurrens eftersom dessa kan leda till ökade kunskaper och möjligheter. Jakten på minskade kostnader och ökad kompetens kommer förmodligen alltid vara ett faktum. Det viktigaste under dagens globala förändringar och nya verklighet är dock att inte tolka förändringarna som hot utan som möjligheter.</p> / <p>The relocation of manufacturing professions in favour of low-wage countries have been a frequent discussion lately. Today we see the trend develop even further, towards relocation of business processes. One of these business processes that have been up for discussion in recent times is Research and Development, R&D. Although R&D is among others built on knowledge and compe-tence and Sweden are known for being a country with high competence and successful high technology companies, a huge worry appears to exist about the risk of loosing highly qualified positions to low-wage countries. By a qualitative study with a reflexive methodology way of thinking combined with an abductive method, we have answered the question what the R&D offshore trend signifies and what, from a Swedish companies’ perspective, considering competence and knowledge, threats and opportunities there are in this trend. From the three different viewpoints; respondents working outside companies, respondents working inside companies, and respondents working close to companies we gained information about the subject in matter and distinguished six areas from were useful information could be gathered in order to fulfil the purpose of the study; the offshore trend, R&D internationalization, cost versus quality, competence/knowledge, networks, and opportunities and threats. There is no ensured knowledge of the internationalization proportions but there is still a tendency to relocation of companies. However, this also lead to an increased number of foreign owned companies in Sweden, which may result in a wider and deeper knowledge base in the country. The difficulties in transferring knowledge seem to be an issue and while low-wage countries’ competence increases there might be in question to relocate part of R&D units. It is therefore of huge importance to stay flexible and responsiveness to be able to stay competitive at the global market. Further net-works play an important role when competing globally since these may contribute to increased knowledge and better opportunities. The chase towards decreased costs and increased competence will always be a fact. However, the most important during today’s international changes and the new reality is to not interpret the changes as threats but as opportunities.</p>

Politics has often been conceptualized as a conflict between political parties that represent the economic interests of different groups in society. This conception of politics has, however, been considerably weakened by the economic and social transformations of the last decades and by the rise of post-materialist values among newer generations of electors. Indeed, the vote of manual workers for left-wing parties has declined significantly in recent decades as did the impact of left-wing parties on social spending. At the same time, the issue of low-wage work has become prominent in the partisan debates of several countries such as the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom following the mobilization of low-paid workers, unions and community associations. Low-wage workers who mainly work in the service sector have often precarious work and living conditions following decades of labor markets deregulation and are highly dependent on governmental policies to insure decent living and work conditions. One of these policies, the minimum wage, has been at the center of the electoral campaigns of many left-wing parties in recent years. However, the issue of low-wage work has rarely been studied in political science. This thesis seeks to explain the partisan dynamics surrounding the issue of low-wage work. My main argument is that low-wage workers tend to vote for left-wing parties in accordance with their economic interests, especially in countries with a weak degree of corporatism such as the United States and the United Kingdom. In those countries, left-wing parties have strong incentives to make pledges related to low-wage work like increasing the minimum wage in their electoral manifesto, because unions are unable to negotiate decent working conditions for the majority of workers. Indeed, in countries with weak corporatism, low-wage workers are very dependent on governmental interventions to ensure minimum working standards and improve their living conditions. In countries with strong corporatism, however, unions negotiate collective agreements that ensure minimum working conditions for the majority of workers, workers with weaker bargaining power are thus less dependent on government policies to insure decent working conditions. Therefore, left-wing parties should be able to consolidate their vote among low-wage workers in countries with a weak degree of corporatism. Once in power, left-wing parties should also increase the minimum wage and the direct cash transfers to low-income families more than governments led by right-wing parties, especially when corporatism is weak. The emphasis on policies targeted to low-wage workers by left-wing parties in countries with a weak degree of corporatism could also limit the capacity of radical parties to attract the vote of low-wage workers. This thesis is composed of 4 articles, one on electoral pledges related to low-wage work, one on the vote of low-wage workers, one on the impact of left-wing parties on minimum wages and one on the impact of left-wing parties on direct cash transfers received by low-income families. These four articles demonstrate the relevance of a materialist conception of politics and the role of institutions regulating the labor market on partisan dynamics.

Low wage workers are faced with unique challenges such as shift work, scheduling conflicts, and increased job demands, all of which have the capacity to prevent work and family balance. Recently, supportive supervisors and flexible work arrangements have been suggested as essential to mitigating negative work family outcomes. Due to the underrepresentation of low wage workers in the literature, however, the nature of these relationships in the context of low wage work remains unclear. The present study examined the relationship between family-supportive supervisor behaviors (FSSB) and work family conflict and enrichment as mediated by flexibility characteristics. The sample consisted of 104 supervisor-subordinate pairs working in various retail and fast food industries. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the hypothesized relationships, and although flexibility characteristics were not found to mediate the relationship between FSSB and work family outcomes, the overall model was supported. Results suggest that flexibility characteristics have a significant impact on work family conflict for low wage workers. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The research in this thesis will look at the lives of a very specific group of Chinese immigrant workers in the restaurant industry, particularly those in the metropolitan city of Los Angeles. While unskilled Chinese workers are popular in the Chinese restaurant business because of the lack of skills required, they are quite mobile between the manufacturing and construction sectors as well. Working conditions are less than ideal for these immigrants, who find that life in America may not be what they expected prior to arrival. Though there are many organizations that seek to improve the lives of immigrants already residing in the United States, better efforts towards coordination could be put forth to ensure the availability and knowledge of these resources. Though Asian immigrants and their children have a reputation as a high-achieving model minority, there still remains a class of people who struggle with the same issues of relocation and assimilation as other immigrants. This research hopes to analyze the patterns of immigration for workers like these, to evaluate whether it is still feasible to achieve the American dream, and, if necessary, re-think U.S. immigration policy by looking to our Northern neighbors Canada and providing some policy recommendations.

The research in this thesis will look at the lives of a very specific group of Chinese immigrant workers in the restaurant industry, particularly those in the metropolitan city of Los Angeles. While unskilled Chinese workers are popular in the Chinese restaurant business because of the lack of skills required, they are quite mobile between the manufacturing and construction sectors as well. Working conditions are less than ideal for these immigrants, who find that life in America may not be what they expected prior to arrival. Though there are many organizations that seek to improve the lives of immigrants already residing in the United States, better efforts towards coordination could be put forth to ensure the availability and knowledge of these resources. Though Asian immigrants and their children have a reputation as a high-achieving model minority, there still remains a class of people who struggle with the same issues of relocation and assimilation as other immigrants. This research hopes to analyze the patterns of immigration for workers like these, to evaluate whether it is still feasible to achieve the American dream, and, if necessary, re-think U.S. immigration policy by looking to our Northern neighbors Canada and providing some policy recommendations.

Text in Afrikaans / Summaries in English and Afrikaans / The orthodox school's explanation for wage differentials, unemployment and labour market discrimination and the policy measures which they proposed did not offer workable solutions to the problems of the day. During the late 1960s and early 1970s a group of American labour economists conducted field studies in American urban ghettos which resulted in the formulation of the dual labour market theory. In contrast with the orthodox approach, which emphasises free market forces and investment in human capital, the dual labour market theory focuses on the dual structure of the labour market. The labour market is divided between a primary (high-wage) and a secondary (low-wage) sector, with little or no mobility between the sectors. An oversupply of labour in the secondary sector and unemployment are the results. These labour market phenomena and dualism also characterise the South African labour market and should be taken into account when policy measures are formulated. / Loonverskille, werkloosheid en arbeidsmarkdiskriminasie is algemene verskynsels in arbeids· markte wereldwyd. Die ortodokse denkskool se verklaring vir die verskynsels en die beleidsmaatreels wat bulle voorste~ het met verloop van tyd ontevredenheid ontketen omdat dit geen werkbare oplossing vir die probleme van die dag kon hied nie. Gedurende die laat ·1960s en vroee 1970s het 'n groep Arnerikaanse arbeidsekonome verskeie veldstudies in verskillende Arneri· kaanse stedelike ghetto's geloods op soek na 'n meer aanvaarbare verklaring vir hierdie verskyn· sels. Uit hierdie veldstudies is die dualistiese arbeidsmarkteorie geformuleer. In teenstelling met die ortodokse benadering, wat Idem le op die werking van vrye markkragte en investering in menslike kapitaal, benadruk die dualistiese arbeidsmarkteorie die tweeledige struktuur van die arbeidsmark. Die arbeidsmark is verdeel tusssen 'n primere (hoogbesoldigde) en sekondere (laagbesoldigde) sektor, met min of geen mobiliteit tussen die sektore nie. Werkers se toegang tot die primere sektor word beperk, met 'n ooraanbod van arbeid in die sekondere sektor en werkloosheid as die gevolg. Hierdie arbeidsmarkverskynsels en dualisme is ook kenmerkend van die Suid·Afrikaanse arbeidsmark en beleidsmaatreels moet daarmee rekening hou / Economics and Management Sciences / M. Comm. (Economy)

Die Magisterarbeit beschäftigt sich mit der politischen Förderung der geringfügigen Beschäftigung sowie der Inanspruchnahme haushaltsnaher Dienstleistungen und deren Bedeutung für eine gleichstellungsorientierte Familien- und Arbeitsmarktpolitik. Als Ausgangspunkt wird die Frage gestellt, ob geringfügige Beschäftigung und haushaltsnahe Dienstleistungen einen Arbeitsmarkt für Frauen im Niedriglohnsektor schaffen oder ob sie eine Perspektive zur besseren Vereinbarkeit von Erwerbsarbeit und Carearbeit bieten. Dazu wird die Perspektive der Beschäftigten in sogenannten Minijobs als auch der NutzerInnen haushaltsnaher Dienstleistungen analysiert. Als theoretischer Rahmen liegt der Arbeit die These der geschlechterkritischen, vergleichenden Wohlfahrtsstaatforschung zugrunde, dass Policies familialisierende und defamilialisierende Wirkungen haben können. Auf Grundlage dieses Rahmens werden zwei Gesetze und deren gleichstellungspolitische Wirkung analysiert (Familienleistungsgesetz und 2. Gesetz für moderne Dienstleistungen am Arbeitsmarkt – Hartz II). Die Arbeit gelangt zu dem Ergebnis, dass trotz der engen Verflechtung der beiden Politikfelder Arbeitsmarkt- und Familienpolitik ein Mismatch zwischen den analysierten Gesetzen besteht. Insbesondere hinsichtlich der geringfügigen Beschäftigung gelangt die Arbeit aus einer gleichstellungspolitischen Perspektive zu dem Urteil, dass sie sich am modernisierten Ernährermodell orientiert und Frauen auf die Rolle als Zuverdienerin festlegt. Auf diese Weise werden Anreize für eine geschlechterspezifische Arbeitsteilung gelegt. / The M.A. thesis deals with current political reforms in the field of family and employment policies. The main question of the analysis is if employment in household and care services is helping to better facilitate work and life balance of women or if they are merely creating feminized jobs in the low wage sector. Based on theories of feminist welfare state research, the policy analysis is looking at recent legislation in Germany promoting employment of domestic workers on the one hand and on the other hand combating irregular employment in private households („Hartz II“, a labour market reform promoting service sector jobs and „Familienleistungsgesetz“ a family policy reform). Focusing on the macro-level the author raised the key question how labour policies regulated domestic work and care work. The analysis concentrates on the objectives of the two recent laws, their implementation and concrete outcomes as well as the political debate. Therefore data from the German employment bureau and the Federal Statistical Office is analysed. Since domestic work mostly affects women - be it as domestic workers to earn a living, or be it as their employers in order to facilitate work and family life – a perspective that allowed investigating the gender equality in Germany is adopted. Therefore the thesis focused not only on domestic workers but also on their employers. In Germany employing domestic workers has become an individual female solution for a general societal problem, the still difficult reconciliation of work and family life.