Tobacco has long been considered as a host to produce large quantities of high-valued recombinant proteins. However, dealing with large quantities of biomass with a dilute concentration of product is a challenge for down-stream processing. Aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE) has been used in purifying proteins from various sources. It is a protein-friendly process and can be scaled up easily. ATPE was studied for its applicability to recombinant protein purification from tobacco using egg white lysozyme as the model protein. Separate experiments with polyethyleneglycol(PEG)/salt/tobacco extract, and PEG/salt/lysozyme were carried out to determine the partition behavior of tobacco protein and lysozyme, respectively. Two level fractional factorial designs were used to study the effects of factors such as PEG molecular weight, PEG concentration, the concentration of phase forming salt, sodium chloride concentration, and pH on protein partitioning. The results showed that PEG/sodium sulfate system was most suitable for lysozyme purification. Detailed experiments were conducted by spiking lysozyme into the tobacco extract. The conditions with highest selectivity of lysozyme over native tobacco protein were determined using a response surface design. The purification factor was further improved by decreasing the phase ratio along the tie line corresponding to the phase compositions with the highest selectivity. Under selected conditions the lysozyme yield was predicted to be 87% with a purification factor of 4 and concentration factor of 14. The binodial curve and tie line corresponding to the optimal condition for lysozyme recovery for the PEG 3400/sodium sulfate system were developed. The selectivity at the optimal condition was experimentally determined to be 47 with a lysozyme yield of 79.6 % with a purification factor of 10 and a concentration factor of 20. From this study, ATPE was shown to be suitable for initial protein recovery and partial purification from transgenic tobacco. / Master of Science

This diploma thesis was focused on the study of lysozyme and lysozyme-like proteins, either of similar function (antibacterial) or molecular weight (14 - 17 kDa), of synanthropic acaroid mites. In general, animals utilize lysozymes for defensive (antimicrobial) or digestive purposes but also as a digestive enzyme. Some chitinases or other enzymes that act similarly to lysozyme can be utilized for similar purposes. Chitinases belong to house dust mite allergens. One of major mite are historically named lysozyme-like proteins which name relates to their size similar to lysozyme. Bacteriolytic activity has also 14.5 kDa (UniprotKB Q8MWR6) protein. The species selected for the study were domestic mites Dermatophagoides farinae, D. pteronyssinus and Lepidoglyphus destructor. Presence of lysozyme was detected by direct detection with polyclonal antibody using immunohistochemistry and dot blots. Immunohistochemistry proved presence of lysozyme epitopes in the feces of D. farinae, D pteronyssinus a L. destructor. Dot blot analysis demonstrated the presence of imunoreactivity of antibody in spent growth medium extracts (SGME) of all three species. This implies that lysozyme is synthesized in the midgut. The presence of lysozyme and lysozyme-like proteins was proved using 2D electrophoresis and MALDI TOF/TOF...

Hen egg white lysozyme is a hydrolytic enzyme effective at preventing the growth of Gram positive bacteria by degrading the bacterial cell wall to a point of cell lysis. Investigating lysozyme as a processing tool in wine to control the growth of lactic acid bacteria and malolactic fermentation has significant commercial interest. In this project, the interactions of lysozyme with wine components and wine was evaluated along with the efficacy of lysozyme in preventing malolactic fermentation (MLF) in Oregon Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. The information from this work, together with results from similar projects, will allow the development of guidelines for lysozyme use in commercial wine. Interactions of lysozyme with wine components were evaluated by measurement of enzymatic activity in the presence of wine acids, ethanol, and phenolics. Enzyme inhibition was observed, to various degrees, with all wine components. Crude grape tannin altered the availability of free enzyme by complexing to lysozyme and forming a precipitate. In a model wine system, lysozyme activity was reduced by 50% when tannin was present. Lysozyme addition to red wine resulted in a reduction in pigmented compounds and detectable sensory differences. Wine trials evaluated the efficacy of lysozyme in completely preventing malolactic fermentation (MLF) and terminating MLF midway through fermentation in Oregon Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Vintages from 1993 and 1994 were treated without SO₂, with SO₂, with SO₂ plus a starter culture of Leuconostoc oenos. Each lot was divided into 0 ppm lysozyme (control), 250 ppm lysozyme, 500 ppm lysozyme, and 1000 ppm lysozyme. Lactic acid bacteria were enumerated monthly, for ten months. Lysozyme prevented malolactic fermentation in all wines at the treatment levels of 500 and 1000 ppm. In the 1993 Pinot Noir, 250 ppm lysozyme prevented MLF but only delayed MLF in the 1994 vintage. Lysozyme effectively terminated MLF at a concentration between 200 and 300 ppm in both Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. / Graduation date: 1996

Despite the abundance of research conducted into the effects of exercise on mucosal immunity the results remain controversial. Much of the inconsistencies arise from the exercise protocols, the participants studied and their nutritional status, as well as methodological and analytical differences. The purpose of this thesis was to examine the influence of some of these factors, and to investigate potential means of enhancing the mucosal immune response to exercise. In study 1 (Chapter 3) it was shown that a fed or fasted state 2 h prior to exercise had no effect on the s-IgA concentration or secretion rate during prolonged exercise. However, when participants were fed during exercise (Chapter 4), the secretion rate of salivary antimicrobial proteins lysozyme and a-amylase increased, but sIgA remained unchanged. These changes were likely due to the activation of mechanical and gustatory receptors leading to a reflex stimulation of protein secretion via the autonomic nerves, rather than changes in stress hOnliones, since cortisol did not change significantly during exercise. Study 3 (Chapter 5) extended these findings where it was demonstrated that chewing flavoured gum during exercise enhanced lysozyme and a-amylase secretion but resulted in a small reduction in s-IgA secretion rate. Salivary antimicrobial proteins are affected by the exercise intensity since both s-IgA and lysozyme secretion rate increased post -exercise following an incremental test to exhaustion, but not after exercise at 50% Y02max. Moreover, lysozyme secretion rate was also elevated following exercise at 75% Y02mru<, whereas s-IgA remained unchanged. These effects are thought to be mediated by increased sympathetic nervous system activity reflected by the concomitant increases in (lamylase and chromogranin A, rather than the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Resting mucosal immunity exhibits significant gender differences. In study 1 (Chapter 3) s-IgA concentration, secretion rate and osmolality were found to be lower in females than in males at rest. In addition, saliva flow rate was found to be lower in females compared with males in study 5 (Chapter 7). However, these differences did not appear to influence the salivary responses to acute exercise or exercise training. Chronic exercise training in elite male and female swimmers resulted in lower levels of s-IgA secretion rate following periods of intense training prior to competition compared with post-competition (Chapter 7), but these levels were not directly associated with reported episodes of respiratory illness.

Thesis advisor: Kian L. Tan / Thesis advisor: Shih-Yuan Liu / Chapter 1. In the Tan laboratory, we developed synthetic methods to control reaction selectivity (regio-, stereo-, and site-selectivity) using scaffolding catalysis. Our strategy utilizes directing groups that induce intramolecularity through the formation of a labile covalent bond between the substrate and a binding site in a catalytic system. In the first part, we described site-selective functionalization of various carbohydrates and complex polyhydroxylated molecules which contain cis-1,2-diol motif using a chiral organic scaffold. In the second part, meta-selective C–H functionalization of arenes was demonstrated. High meta-selectivity was achieved by the use of a nitrile-based silyl tether which is cleavable and recyclable. Chapter 2. In the Liu laboratory, we focuses on studies of boron-nitrogen containing heterocycles. In this chapter, synthesis of 1,2-azaborines and their binding study with T4 lysozyme mutants were described. Specifically, we directly compared binding of NH-containing 1,2-azaborines and their carbonaceous analogs to probe hydrogen bonding interaction between the NH group of azaborine and a carbonyl oxygen of protein residue. Structural and thermodynamic analysis provided us the first evidence of H-bonding of azaborines with a biological macromolecule. Chapter 3. Described are the synthesis of regioisomers of ethyl-substituted 1,2-azaborines and their binding thermodynamics to T4 lysozyme mutants. To access the azaborine ligands used in the binding study, we developed synthetic methods for regioselective functionalization of six positions of 1,2-azaborines. Isothermal titration calorimetry experiments showed differences in binding free energy for regioisomers to the L99A T4 lysozyme. This result could originate from electronic differences of the isosteric ligands inducing dipole-dipole interaction between ligand and surrounding protein residues or it may be from local dipolar interactions. Chapter 4. A general method for late-stage N-functionalization of 1,2-azaborines is described to afford libraries of BN-containing complex molecules. The chemical transformations include electrophilic substitution reactions, N–C(sp2) bond forming reactions under Buchwald-Hartwig amination conditions, and N–C(sp) bond forming reactions using copper-catalyzed N-alkynylation. As applications in materials science and medicinal chemistry, synthesis of the first parental BN isostere of trans-stilbene and lisdexamfetamine derivative is described utilizing the methodology developed in this work. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2017. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

Neste trabalho estudamos por espalhamento de raios-X a baixos ângulos (SAXS) quatro diferentes sistemas de interesse biológico. Visamos investigar a auto-agregação de proteínas e de complexos proteicos que darão origem a fibras amilóides, interação proteína-proteína, simulando ambientes altamente concentrados, interação proteína-membrana simulando vesículas de matriz extracelular (MVs) de sistemas de biomineralização e interações proteína-agentes desnaturantes. No caso de formação de amilóides, investigamos a agregação do domínio GTPase da septina 6 (SEPT6G) e do complexo formado com o domínio GTPase da septina 2 (SEPT2G-SEPT6G). A temperaturas de até 15°C, tanto SEPT6G quanto SEPT2G-SEPT6G apresentam-se predominantemente diméricas em solução. Já a 25°C, o heterodímero SEPT2G-SEPT6G permanece estável enquanto agregados maiores de SEPT6G evoluem e coexistem em solução com SEPT6G-SEPT6G dimérica, sendo que a proporção de dímeros diminui com a temperatura. No estudo das MVs, mostramos que miméticos lipossomais de DPPC e DPPC:DPPS (9:1) possuem as mesmas características estruturais na ausência e presença de cálcio na solução. A interação da proteína anexina V humana (A5), envolvida em processos de biomineralização, impacta na membrana modelo induzindo a formação de nanoporos. A adição da fosfatase alcalina tecido não-específico (TNAP) não altera as propriedades estruturais do proteolipossomo na presença de A5. A ação do surfactante dodecil sulfato de sódio (SDS) a 30 mM não altera a conformação da albumina soro bovina (BSA), de maneira que é observada a formação de micelas de SDS coexistindo com a proteína livre em solução. Já a adição de 50 mM de SDS induz um desenovelamento parcial da proteína, identificado pela análise das curvas de SAXS via modelo de \"colar de pérolas\". A ação de uréia a 3 M e 8 M promove um desenovelamento parcial e total da BSA, respectivamente, com subsequente agregação de proteína dependente da temperatura (T > 30°C). A adição de 6 mM de SDS em proteínas parcialmente desenoveladas pela ação da uréia promove um desenovelamento mais acentuado. O potencial efetivo resultante da interação entre duas proteínas distintas, BSA e lisozima a concentração total de 100 mg/mL em solução, pH 7.0, foi obtido da análise de curvas de SAXS. Para isto, utilizou-se uma análise simplificada (em primeira aproximação) considerando um potencial efetivo de interação entre BSA-BSA, lisozima-lisozima e lisozima-BSA. Variamos a razão molar BSA:LISO até 1:42. No pH estudado, BSA tem uma carga residual superficial de -11e, enquanto a lisozima possui +9e. Conforme variamos a razão molar BSA:LISO, observamos dois regimes para o potencial efetivo resultante: i) até BSA:LISO 1:2, a carga efetiva do sistema é praticamente nula com um potencial resultante de caráter atrativo e ii) para razões entre BSA:LISO 1:3 a 1:42, a carga efetiva aumenta e o potencial resultante tem caráter repulsivo. Assim, lisozima e BSA coexistem sem agregar, através de um delicado balanço de forças atrativas e repulsivas no sistema. / In this work we have used small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) to study four systems of biological interest. We aim to investigate the self aggregation of proteins and protein complexes that would form amyloid fibers; protein/protein interaction, simulating high concentrations; protein/cell-membrane interaction, simulating extracellular matrix vesicles (MVs) from biomineralizing systems; and protein/denaturating-agents interactions. On the case of amyloid formation, we have investigated the aggregation of G-domain of septin-6 (SEPT6G) and the protein complex formed with G-domain of septin-2 (SEPT2G-SEPT6G). At temperatures lower than 15°C, both SEPT6G and SEPT2G-SEPT6G were found predominantly as dimers. At 25°C, SEPT2G-SEPT6G heterodimer is still stable while aggregates of SEPT6G grow. Both coexist in solutions of SEPT2G-SEPT6G dimers, with the percentage of dimers decreasing the higher the temperature. As for the study of MVs, we have shown that DPPC and DPPC:DPPS (9:1) liposomal mimetics have the same structural characteristics at the absence or presence of Calcium. The interaction with human annexin V protein (A5), related to biomineralization processes, affects the model membrane by the creation of nanopores. The addition of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) does not change the structural properties of the proteoliposome when A5 is present. The addition of SDS surfactant (30 mM) does not alters the conformation of bovine serum albumin (BSA), and we have observed the formation of SDS micelles coexisting with free protein in solution. The addition of 50 mM of SDS, on the other hand, induces the partial unraveling of the protein, as seen by the analysis of SAXS data via the pearl necklace\'\' model. The effect of adding 3M and 8M urea is, respectively, the partial and total unraveling of BSA, with ensuing aggregation of the protein dependent on the temperature (T > 30°C). The introduction of SDS 6mM promotes further unraveling in proteins that were previously partially unraveled by urea. The resulting effective potential for the interaction between BSA and lysozyme at total concentration of 100mg/ml and 7.0 pH has been obtained from the analysis of SAXS curves. In order to obtain this result we have used a simplified analysis (first order approximation) in which were considered the effective potentials for the interactions between BSA-BSA, lysozyme-lysozyme and lysozyme-BSA. We have varied the BSA:LISO molar ratio up to 1:42. At the studied pH, BSA has a surface residual charge of -11e, and lysozyme has +9e. As we changed the BSA:LISO molar ratio, we have found two regimens for the resulting effective potential: i) up to BSA:LISO 1:2, the effective charge of the system is virtually zero and the resulting potential is attractive; and ii) for BSA:LISO between 1:3 and 1:42 the effective charge increases, and the resulting potential is repulsive. Therefore, both lysozyme and BSA coexist without forming aggregates, by a delicate balance of attractive and repulsive forces.

The mechanisms linking deposits of insoluble fibrils of amyloid proteins to the debilitating neuronal cell death characteristic of neurodegenerative diseases remain enigmatic. Recent findings suggest that transiently formed intermediate aggregates, and not the prominent neuronal plaques, represent the principal toxic agent. Evaluating the neurotoxicity of intermediate aggregates, however, requires unambiguous characterization of all aggregate structures present, their relative distributions, and how they evolve in time. Hen-egg white lysozyme represents an attractive model for studying intermediate aggregate formation since it is an extensively characterized globular protein, and its human variants can lead to systemic amyloidosis. Combining in-situ dynamic light scattering (DLS) with atomic force microscopy (AFM), we have characterized the morphologies and growth kinetics of intermediate aggregates formed during lysozyme fibrillogenesis. Upon incubation at elevated temperatures, small uniform oligomers form with their numbers increasing for several hours. After a variable lag period protofibrils spontaneously nucleate. The heights and widths of protofibrils closely match those of oligomers. This match in physical dimensions, combined with the delayed onset of protofibril nucleation vs. the continuous formation of oligomers, suggest that protofibrils both nucleate and grow from oligomers. Protofibril morphologies and structures, visualized with AFM, are quite distinct from subsequently emerging mature fibrils. Overall, the evolution of aggregate morphologies during lysozyme fibrillogenesis follows a clear hierarchical pathway: amyloid monomers initially coalesce into oligomers of uniform size. Their steadily increasing numbers eventually induce nucleation and growth of protofibrils. Protofibrils, in turn, nucleate and grow via oligomer addition until they start to self-assemble into micron-sized double-stranded fibrils.

Advances in recent nanoscience technologies have generated a new compilation of biocompatible, fluorescent nanoparticles derived from semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). QDs are extremely small in size and possess very large surface areas, which gives them unique physical properties and applications distinct from those of bulk systems. When exposed to biological fluid, these QDs may become coated with proteins and other biomolecules given their dynamic nature. These protein-QD systems may affect or enhance the changes in protein structure and stability, leading to the destruction of biological function. It is believed that these QDs can act as nucleation centers and subsequently promote protein fibril formation. Protein fibrillation is closely associated with many fatal human diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases and a variety of systemic amyloidoses. This topic of protein-QD interaction brings about many key issues and concerns, especially with respect to the potential risks to human health and the environment. Herein, the behavioral effects of dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA)-capped CdSe/ZnS (core/shell) QDs in hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL) and human serum albumin (HSA) protein systems were systematically analyzed. This study gives rise to a better understanding of the potentially useful application of these protein-QD systems in nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine as a bioimaging tool and/or as a reference for controlled biological self-assembly processes.

Lors des deux dernières décennies, Enterococcus faecalis a émergé comme une cause majeure d'infections nosocomiales. E. faecalis est une des rares bactéries presque complètement résistante à l'un des composés les plus importants et les plus répandus du système immunitaire inné : le lysozyme. C'est donc l'étude des causes de cette résistance qui nous a intéressé au cours de ce travail de thèse. Nous avons identifié deux gènes nommés EF0783 et EF1843, potentiellement impliqués dans la résistance au lysozyme. Les protéines codées par ces gènes partagent respectivement des homologies avec une O-acétyltransférase du peptidoglycane (OatA) de Staphylococcus aureus et une N-acétylglucosamine déacétylase (PgdA) de Streptococcus pneumoniae. Nous avons construit les mutants correspondants (DEF0783 et DEF1843) et le double mutant DEF0783-DEF1843. Nous avons montré que la mutation de EF0783 entraînait la perte des groupements O-acétyles du peptidoglycane ainsi qu'une diminution de la résistance au lysozyme. Par contre, aucun effet sur la résistance au lysozyme n'a été associé au gène EF1843. De plus, la délétion de EF0783 et/ou de EF1843 affecte significativement la capacité d'E. faecalis à survivre dans des macrophages murins. Bien que EF0783 soit effectivement impliqué dans la résistance au lysozyme, la Oacétylation et la dé-N-acétylation ne sont pas les principaux mécanismes conférant les hauts niveaux de résistance au lysozyme à E. faecalis. Des expériences pour identifier d'autres facteurs expliquant cette résistance au lysozyme sont à envisager.

Membrane chromatography was investigated as an alternative method to packed-bed chromatography for protein recovery. The purification of lysozyme from egg white with Natrix adseptTM weak cation-exchange membranes was investigated under two different binding configurations: (1) a non-flow, static set-up with variable pH and sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations during the binding and elution steps, and (2) a dynamic, cross-flow set-up with recycle at pH 7.5 and no NaCl addition during binding. The weak cation-exchange membrane consisted of a carboxylic acid-based, environmentally-responsive hydrogel layer bonded to a polymer matrix. Lysozyme was chosen to illustrate protein-membrane binding interactions due to its well-characterized nature and positive surface charge over a large pH range. For the static binding set-up, two sources of lysozyme were studied: pure lysozyme and egg whites treated with 60 % (v/v) ethanol (ESEW). Elution of bound protein was performed with 1 M NaCl under two pH strategies: binding and elution at a constant pH, and binding at pH 4.5 and variable elution pH. The highest maximum total protein binding capacity for pure lysozyme and ESEW was observed at pH 4.5 with no NaCl addition; however, poor total protein and lysozyme activity recovery were achieved during separation. As well, other egg white proteins, such as ovomucoid, were observed to bind to the membrane surface at pH 4.5, despite possessing similar charge polarity to the anionic membrane surface, indicating a non-electrostatic binding mechanism during operation below the membrane’s pKa (4.7). Based on the conditions tested, the highest total protein and lysozyme activity recovery was demonstrated for the separation of lysozyme from ESEW at pH 7.5 binding and elution and no NaCl addition. In the dynamic binding study, very high pure lysozyme dynamic binding capacity was achieved at 10 % breakthrough (167.3 mg/ml membrane for a 0.35 mg/ml lysozyme solution). The lysozyme dynamic binding capacity was 2.2 times greater than the static binding capacity under similar conditions, significantly higher than published results for other cation-exchange membranes. The separation of lysozyme from four lysozyme sources was tested: pure lysozyme, ESEW, and aqueous egg whites with (ASEW) and without (AEW) 100 mM NaCl. The highest lysozyme activity recovery during separation and lysozyme purity was achieved from the ESEW feed. Lysozyme separation from aqueous egg whites was not as effective, likely due to a high concentration of negatively-charged protein impurities fouling the surface of the membrane. Competitive binding to the membrane limited lysozyme binding and reduced the purity of the recovery elution stream. The application of feed-side pressure during the separation of ESEW produced a high purity, high recovery lysozyme elution stream with a significant reduction in processing time; however, protein aggregates were observed to form on the membrane surface, limiting the applicability of high-pressure operation and reducing protein functionality in the elution stream. The weak cation-exchange membrane system was shown to successfully separate out a target protein from a low concentration protein mixture through electrostatic interactions, and may be further applied to other protein systems.