A produção de rosas em ambiente protegido sob fertirrigação é uma técnica bastante utilizada pelos produtores e vem se expandindo consideravelmente, principalmente no Estado de São Paulo; cultivo este antes restrito a região Sudeste, hoje se encontra em todas as regiões do País. O manejo adequado da irrigação associado à fertirrigação nitrogenada é um fator relevante nos parâmetros de produtividade e de qualidade das rosas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a produtividade e a qualidade das hastes florais na cultura da roseira, variedade Samourai® Meikatana, submetida a diferentes níveis de depleção da água no solo e doses de nitrogênio aplicadas via fertirrigação sob cultivo em ambiente protegido. O experimento foi conduzido na área experimental do Departamento de Engenharia Biossistemas da Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\", em Piracicaba, SP. O delineamento estatístico foi em blocos casualizados, em esquema fatorial 4 x 4, totalizando 16 tratamentos, com 4 repetições, sendo a unidade experimental representada por uma parcela com dimensões de 0,4 x 0,5 x 2,0 m. Os tratamentos foram compostos pela combinação de quatro doses de nitrogênio (N1 = 5, N2 = 10, N3 = 15 e N4 = 20 g planta-1 ano-1) e quatro níveis de depleção da água no solo (F1 = 0,15; F2 = 0,30; F3 = 0,45 e F4 = 0,60). O sistema de irrigação utilizado foi o gotejamento, adotando manejo de irrigação com tensiômetros providos de transdutores de pressão. Ao longo do ciclo da cultura foi realizado o monitoramento da condutividade elétrica (CE), potencial hidrogeniônico (pH) e a concentração de nitrato (NO3-) e potássio (K) na solução coletada. Foram avaliados a produtividade, os parâmetros qualitativos das hastes e botões, a temperatura e o potencial da água na folha, o consumo hídrico, a produtividade da água, o teor de nutrientes no tecido vegetal e a renda bruta. Os resultados demostram que a dose de N que maximiza a produção comercial de hastes decresce à medida que se prolongam as colheitas. O estresse hídrico temporário (depleção) afeta negativamente os parâmetros quantitativos e qualitativos das hastes de rosas. A produção e a qualidade das hastes são mais afetadas pelas doses de nitrogênio do que pelos níveis de depleção da água no solo. A temperatura foliar e o potencial da água na folha são afetados pelos níveis de depleção e não são influenciados pelas doses de nitrogênio. O consumo hídrico é afetado por ambos os fatores estudados. A produtividade da água em hastes aumenta em função dos fatores doses de N e depleção da água no solo. Os tratamentos promoveram diferenças significativas na fitomassa e no teor de N > K > Ca > Mg > P > S no tecido vegetal das hastes florais de rosas. / The production of roses in protected environment under fertigation is a technique used by farmers and has expanded considerably, especially in the state of São Paulo, Brazil; this culture, previously limited to the Southeast region of Brazil, today is found in all regions of the country. Proper management of irrigation associated to nitrogenated fertigation is an important factor in productivity parameters and quality of cut roses. The aims of this study was to evaluate the productivity and quality of the flowers in the rose bush, \"Samourai® Meikatana\", variety, under different soil water depletion factors and nitrogen levels applied through fertigation under cultivation in protected environment. The experiment was carried in the experimental area of the Biosystems Engineering Department, School of Agriculture \"Luiz de Queiroz\", in Piracicaba, state of São Paulo, Brazil. Experimental design was a randomized blocks in a 4 x 4 factorial scheme, totaling 16 treatments, with four replications and plot with dimensions of 0.4 x 0.5 x 2.0 m. The treatments consisted of combinations of four nitrogen levels (N1 = 5, N2 = 10, N3 = 15 and N4 = 20 g plant-1 year-1) and four levels of soil water depletion (F1 = 0.15 ; F2 = 0.30, F3 = 0.45 and F4 = 0.60). The application of water and nutrients (fertigation) was performed when the soil water availability reached these percentages. The irrigation system used was drip irrigation adopting management with tensiometers equipped with pressure transducers. Throughout the crop cycle was performed monitoring of electrical conductivity (EC), potential hydrogen (pH) and concentration of nitrate (NO3-) and potassium (K) in the soil solution. The yield, the qualitative parameters of the stems and buds of cut roses, leaf temperature and water potential, water consumption, water productivity, nutrient content in plant tissue and gross income was evaluated. The dose of N which maximizes the commercial production of cut flowers decreases as it extends harvest. The temporary water stress (depletion) negatively affects the quantitative and qualitative parameters of cut roses. The production and quality of cut roses are more affected by nitrogen levels than by the soil water depletion. Leaf temperature and leaf water potential are affected by levels of depletion and are not influenced by the nitrogen levels. The water consumption is affected by both studied factors. Water productivity in cut roses increases due to the N levels and soil water depletion factors. The treatments promoted significant differences in phytomass and content of N > K > Ca > Mg > P > S in plant tissue of the roses floral stems.

Orientador: Edison Bittencourt / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T04:07:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Borelli_Camilla_D.pdf: 3705740 bytes, checksum: 0fb8d239f30de40d55f37f75f57bf221 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: O crescente interesse pelo conforto no vestuário, utilizado em atividades profissionais, práticas esportivas e até mesmo roupas casuais, impulsionou uma demanda pelo conhecimento das propriedades e funcionalidades que se almeja em relação à interação com o usuário. O transporte de umidade é um dos principais parâmetros relacionados ao conforto têxtil. A capacidade de um tecido transportar a transpiração da pele ao ambiente influencia diretamente na percepção de conforto. A medida de transporte de umidade configura-se como uma ferramenta valiosa na avaliação do desempenho e desenvolvimento de novos produtos têxteis, principalmente pela escassez de estudos envolvendo os tecidos planos produzidos com fios de poliéster. Com o objetivo de avaliar o conforto de artigos têxteis, através do transporte de umidade multidimensional, transporte de umidade por capilaridade, permeabilidade ao vapor e permeabilidade ao ar, foram comparados tecidos planos de poliéster produzidos com diferentes ligamentos e diferentes títulos de filamentos. Os resultados mostraram que a presença de filamentos mais finos (microfibras), aliada ao ligamento tela, favorece o transporte da umidade por capilaridade e a permeabilidade ao ar, enquanto que os parâmetros de transporte da umidade multidimensional e permeabilidade ao vapor não sofreram influência dos títulos dos filamentos e dos diferentes ligamentos, sendo unicamente influenciados pelas propriedades da matéria-prima / Abstract: The growing interest in clothing's comfort, used in professional activities, sports and even casual clothes, created a demand for knowledge of the properties and features desirable regarding interaction with the user. The moisture transport is one of the main parameters related to comfort. The ability to transport perspiration to environment, of a fabric, influences directly the perception of comfort. The measurement of the moisture transport is a valuable tool in assessing the performance and development of new textile products, mainly because there are not many studies on polyester woven fabrics. In order to evaluate the behavior of textile's comfort, by moisture multidimensional transport, moisture transport by capillarity (wicking), vapor permeability and air permeability, polyester woven fabrics produced with different weaves and filament's yarn count number were compared. The results showed that the presence of finer filaments (microfiber), coupled with twill weave, facilitates capillarity moisture transport and air permeability, while the multidimensional moisture transport and vapor permeability parameters are not influenced by different filament's yarn count number and weaves, only influenced by the properties of the raw material / Doutorado / Ciencia e Tecnologia de Materiais / Doutora em Engenharia Quimica

- Einleitung: Projektvorstellung 3D – Saat - Material und Methode zur Einflussermittlung von Bodenparametern auf die Ergebnisse der Feuchtemessung - Präsentation und Diskussion der Ergebnisse - Zusammenfassung und Ausblick

Crop growth simulation models can address a variety of agricultural problems, but their use to directly assist in-season irrigation management decisions is less common. Confidence in model reliability can be increased if models are shown to provide improved in-season management recommendations, which are explicitly tested in the field. The objective of this study was to compare the CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton model (with recently updated ET routines) to a well-tested FAO-56 irrigation scheduling spreadsheet by (1) using both tools to schedule cotton irrigation during 2014 and 2015 in central Arizona and (2) conducting a post-hoc simulation study to further compare outputs from these tools. Two replications of each irrigation scheduling treatment and a water-stressed treatment were established on a 2.6 ha field. Irrigation schedules were developed on a weekly basis and administered via an overhead lateral-move sprinkler irrigation system. Neutron moisture meters were used weekly to estimate soil moisture status and crop water use, and destructive plant samples were routinely collected to estimate cotton leaf area index (LAI) and canopy weight. Cotton yield was estimated using two mechanical cotton pickers with differing capabilities: (1) a two-row picker that facilitated manual collection of yield samples from 32 m(2) areas and (2) a four-row picker equipped with a sensor-based cotton yield monitoring system. In addition to statistical testing of field data via mixed models, the data were used for post-hoc reparameterization and fine-tuning of the irrigation scheduling tools. Post-hoc simulations were conducted to compare measured and simulated evapotranspiration, crop coefficients, root zone soil moisture depletion, cotton growth metrics, and yield for each irrigation treatment. While total seasonal irrigation amounts were similar among the two scheduling tools, the crop model recommended more water during anthesis and less during the early season, which led to higher cotton fiber yield in both seasons (p < 0.05). The tools calculated cumulative evapotranspiration similarly, with root mean squared errors (RMSEs) less than 13%; however, FAO-56 crop coefficient (K-c) plots demonstrated subtle differences in daily evapotranspiration calculations. Root zone soil moisture depletion was better calculated by CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton, perhaps due to its more complex soil profile simulation; however, RMSEs for depletion always exceeded 20% for both tools and reached 149% for the FAO-56 spreadsheet in 2014. CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton simulated cotton LAI, canopy weight, canopy height, and yield with RMSEs less than 21%, while the FAO-56 spreadsheet had no capability for such outputs. Through field verification and thorough post-hoc data analysis, the results demonstrated that the CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton model with updated FAO-56 ET routines could match or exceed the accuracy and capability of an FAO-56 spreadsheet tool for cotton water use calculations and irrigation scheduling.

This thesis studies the static and fatigue failure of carbon fibre-epoxy composite for marine use. The primary objective is to investigate the effects of sea water ingress on the static and cyclic performance of laminated composites, by using the combination of experimental, numerical and analytical approaches. Experiments were carried out to collect evidence, including data and images, for further analysis. Samples were made from autoclave-cured carbon fibre-epoxy pre-preg for the static, moisture diffusion and fatigue tests. Three chambers were used in the diffusion test, containing fresh water (tap water), sea water and sea water at 70 bar hydrostatic pressure respectively. And the chambers were placed in an oven at a constant temperature 50 °C in order to accelerate the water absorption. Optical and scanning electron microscopies (SEM) were employed to inspect for manufacturing defects and to identify the failure modes. Some formulae were derived to predict the material properties of laminated composites, to validate the mechanical tests, and to explain the failure criteria of composites. Finite element analysis (FEA) was employed to study the phenomena that were observed in the experiments. FEA has the aim to simulate the static, diffusion and fatigue behaviour involving multiphysics and multiscale effects. The FEA modelling has revealed details of the stress and moisture distributions, which have helped to understand the failure mechanisms of laminated composites. Classical laminate theory (CLT) was employed to develop an analytical model. The basic principles of CLT were extended to three-dimensions, and the analytical solution was critically compared with the FEA results. Some MATLAB tools based on CLT were developed to predict the properties of laminated composites and to analyse the experimental data. These MATLAB codes are shown in the appendix. This thesis has contributed to an improved knowledge of the failure mechanisms of composite materials in both normal and marine environments, and to optimize structural design of FRP composites.

The purpose of this essay is to investigate the origin of the large amount of precipitation that is present in the northern Ethiopian Highlands. With Moisture transport into the Ethiopian Highlands by Ellen Viste and Asgeir Sorteberg as a base, this essays intents to compare the same data but by focusing on a much smaller time scale. This frame was chosen to see if the data would deviate (i.e. a small and specific time scale versus a large and general time scale). Whilst the investigation by Viste and Sorteberg focuses on the two most rain rich months, July and August during 1998-2008, this essay focuses on only July during 2008.                       To investigate where the precipitation originates from, this essay has analyzed different meteorological parameters such as horizontal and vertical winds at different altitudes and the moisture content of these winds.                       This essay has like Viste’s and Sorteberg’s paper used ERA-Interim data as a basis. However the course of action has differed. This essay has made conclusions by visually drawing conclusions by studying the data images while Viste and Asgeir have drawn their conclusions by backtracking the wind to its origin.                       This investigations results showed that great amounts of moisture were transported into the highlands from the south-west, and to some extent also from the north. While the moisture transport from the south-west was large due to the level of moist in the air, these winds where fairly small and at low altitudes. The winds from the north were visible at higher altitudes and were stronger, however they carried much less water vapor. However, exactly how much each of these winds actually contributed to producing rain is more difficult to say.                       The results from Viste and Asgeir (2011) showed that the amount of moist that was transported into the highlands were about 46 percent more from the north compared to from the south. The contribution to moisture release within the area was however almost equally great from north and south.                       Both investigations thus showed that the largest amount of moist was transported from the south and north. What this study did however not address was how large amount of the entire moist that had contributed to rain.                       One anomaly of large amounts of precipitation was registered on the 20th of July 2008. This study looked closer into this which showed that large winds were registered this date as well as an upwind cell. One can presume that these winds carried large amounts of moisture, which previous results has shown, and that this might be an explanation to the large amount of precipitation that was measured on the 20th of July.

Doctorat en sciences appliquées / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La ouate de cellulose utilisée pour l’isolation est fabriquée à partir de fibres de papier broyé, traitées avec des additifs minéraux agissant comme agents ignifuges et antifongiques. La conductivité thermique du matériau final est aux alentours de 0,04 W/m.K, ce qui est comparable à la laine de verre, avec l’intérêt d’être fabriqué à partir de matériaux recyclés, représentant un taux d’énergie grise beaucoup plus faible. Le mode de mise en oeuvre par voie humide de la ouate de cellulose a plusieurs avantages par rapport à la voie sèche. Le fait que les fibres de cellulose se rigidifient avec l’eau, empêche le tassement du matériau, qui peut engendrer des ponts thermiques dans l’enveloppe du bâtiment. Par contre, la durée de séchage peut être très longue et variable selon le dosage utilisé et les conditions ambiantes d’application. Ce projet de recherche vise à trouver l’additif idéal permettant d’accélérer le séchage tout en conservant une bonne cohésion du matériau et le maintien de ses propriétés isolantes. Deux types de ouate de cellulose utilisés en isolation ont été caractérisés. Ils ont montré des différences de composition chimique, granulométrie et morphologie. L’influence de leurs caractéristiques physiques telles que la rétention d’eau, les isothermes d’adsorption d’eau et les proportions d’eau libre et liée sur le séchage du matériau final a été mise en évidence. Du point de vue de la mise en oeuvre, il a été démontré que le dosage en eau avait un impact important sur les propriétés finales du matériau. La densité, la résistance en compression et la conductivité thermique augmentent avec le dosage en eau. Un minimum de 14 kPa pour le module de compression a été défini comme le seuil de résistance permettant d’éviter le tassement. Ces propriétés ont été comparées avec celles de la ouate de cellulose compactée à sec et les résultats ont montré la forte influence de la rigidification et de la fermeture des pores du matériau. Deux voies ont été envisagées pour résoudre le problème du temps de séchage : l’ajout d’additifs aux propriétés adhésives permettant de réduire la quantité d’eau introduite en renforçant la cohésion de l’isolant, et l’ajout d’additifs permettant de modifier la tension de surface pour faciliter le départ de l’eau. Les additifs biosourcés potentiels ont été caractérisés à différentes concentrations et classés selon leur viscosité et leur pouvoir collant. Malheureusement plusieurs additifs ont dû être rejeté car ils présentaient un couple « propriété adhésive/pompabilité » non adapté. Une gamme de tensioactifs a également été testée par rapport à leurs tensions de surface. Les formulations pompables ont étés caractérisées par rapport à leurs temps de séchage, résistance en compression et conductivité thermique. Les additifs qui ont montré des contributions positives sur le séchage sont les lignosulfonates et le tensioactif cationique CTAB. L’influence de ces deux additifs a ensuite été étudiée avec un modèle numérique à travers le logiciel WUFI en prenant en compte l’impact sur le séchage, la météo, le dosage liquide et l’épaisseur de l’isolant. Les conditions optimales ont été définies. Le lignosulfonate s’est avéré être l’additif le plus efficace. Une première évaluation de la performance des nouveaux isolants en termes de résistance au feu et à la moisissure a été réalisée et des indications pour la suite de l’étude ont été proposées. / Cellulose insulation is manufactured from recycled paper fibres, treated with mineral additives acting as flame retardants and antifungals. Its consistency is similar to cotton wool. The fibres are sold in bulk to be blown into the walls and attics. Its thermal conductivity is around 0.04 W/m.K, which is comparable to glass wool, but it is made with recycled materials and has much lower embodied energy levels. It can be either blown dry or sprayed with water. The wet spray method for cellulose insulation has several benefits compared to the dry process. Since the cellulose fibres become rigid after drying, it prevents the compaction of the material thus avoiding thermal bridges in the building envelope. However, the time to reach the dry state may be very long and variable depending on the dosage used and the environmental conditions of application. There are many bio-based additives that can contribute to the reduction of this period and improve the cohesion of the material. This research project aims to find the optimal additive for this application while retaining the favourable properties of the insulating material. Two cellulose types have been characterized with regards to the properties of the fibres to determine their performance with water. Both samples showed differences in chemical composition, grain size, and morphology. The values of water retention, water adsorption isotherms and the proportions of free and bound water have been factors which have shown an influence on the drying of the insulation. Density, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity increased with moisture dosage. A minimum of 14 kPa for the compression module was defined as the resistance threshold to avoid settling. These properties were compared with those of the cellulose insulation compacted to dryness and the results showed the strong influence of the stiffening and pore closing process upon drying, on these properties. Potential bio-based additives were classified and characterized with regards between concentration, viscosity, and adhesive strength. A relationship between these parameters was established. Most showed Newtonian behaviour at low concentrations, with some non- Newtonian concentrations having a pumpable viscosity. Unfortunately several additives which showed good adhesive properties were too viscous and vice versa. A range of surfactants were also considered. Sprayable formulations were characterized with respect to their drying time, compressive strength and thermal conductivity. Additives which have shown positive contributions drying are the lignosulfonate and the cationic surfactant CTAB. The influence of these additives on drying, with varying weather, liquid dosage and thickness of insulation was defined with a numerical model through the WUFI software. Optimal conditions in which the lignosulfonate additive is more effective have been defined. A first assessment of the performance of new formulation in terms of fire and mould was made and indications for the continuation of the study of the material were formalized.

Cette thèse étudie l'évaporation et l'humidité du sol, deux paramètres clefs du cycle hydrologique et du système climatique.L'évaporation potentielle (ETP) est un paramètre clef pour les modèles hydrologiques et agronomiques qui décrit les interactions entre la surface et l'atmosphère. Il constitue la base des estimations de l'évaporation réelle. Nous avons évalué, à l'échelle globale et pour le climat actuel ainsi que pour les changements attendus, des estimations de l'ETP basées sur des principes physiques ainsi que des approches empiriques. La méthode d'estimation du flux potentiel conseillée par la Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) montre une sous évaluation par rapport au schéma de surface, ce qui a pu être relié à certaines hypothèses faites. Ceci implique aussi une sensibilité plus faible au changement climatique de la formulation proposée par la FAO. Nous avons aussi constaté que les méthodes empiriques ne représentent pas correctement l'impact du changement climatique sur l'ETP.L'humidité du sol est analysée du point de vue de la température de brillance en Bande-L (TB). Cette mesure du rayonnement émis par la surface dans une bande spectrale sensible à l'eau dans les premiers centimètres du sol, constitue une des pistes pour l'estimation de l'humidité de surface depuis l'espace. Des mesures de TB ont été comparées, au dessus de la Péninsule Ibérique, à des données simulées par deux schémas de surface. Un bon accord a été trouvé entre les observations et les simulations sur l'évolution temporelle des signaux. Par contre, les structures spatiales peuvent être très différentes au cours de l'automne et l'hiver à cause de cycles annuels très contrastés. / This thesis deals with the study of evaporation and soil moisture, t wo main parameters of the hydrological cycle, and thus the climate system. First, potential evaporation (ET P ) is analysed. It is an important input to hydrological and agronomic models, key to describe the interactions between the surface e and the atmosphere, and the basis of most of the estimations of actual evapora tion. Physically-based and empirical methods to estimate ET P are evaluated, at a global scale, under current climate conditions and in a changing climate. The former methods correspond to those implemented in land surface models (LSM) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) reference evapotranspiration equation. The assumptions made in FAO's method underest imate ET P if compared to LSM methods. They also result in a lower sensitive ty of ET P to climate change. In addition, empirical equations are not able to reproduce the impact of climate change on ET P if compared to that from LSM methods. Soil moisture is the second aim of this thesis. It is treated t hrough the analysis of brightness temperatures (TB). These are a measure of the radiation emitted by the surface , and thus an optimum parameter to use in remote sensing techniques for soi l moisture retrieval. Measured TB from the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission are compared, over the Iberian Peninsula, to two sets of TB modelled estimates from two LSM. There is a good agreement in the temporal evolution between them. However, discrepancy es are found regarding the spatial structures, which become more evident during fall and winter and are mainly explained by differences in the annual cycle of measured and modelled TB.

A major design issue in the implementation of a Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) system for extensively crops such as alfalfa (i.e. crops that cover the entire surface as opposed to row crops), is the determination of the appropriate depth of placement of the drip line tubing. It is important to allow necessary farming operations with heavy equipment at harvesting times while still providing adequate water to meet the crop water requirements. It is also a need to ensure appropriate spacing between the dripline laterals to assure reasonable lateral irrigation uniformity for plant germination. In this study, the program HYDRUS-2D was used to determine the wetting pattern above and laterally from a subsurface drip emitter of an SDI system, for three soils typically found in Southern California and Arizona, a Sandy Clay Loam (SCL), a Clay Loam (CL) and a Loam (L). The design and management conditions from an experimental alfalfa field with an SDI system located at Holtville CA were used and analyzed. The first irrigation design was with a drip line depth of placement of 30 cm and the second design with an installation depth of 50 cm. The two different irrigation management schemes utilized by the farmers and producers in that area were: one with a running time of six hours and a frequency of every three days and the second one with an irrigation running time of twenty-four hours with a frequency of seven days or irrigation every week. After having carried out the analysis and studies of the irrigation designs and management schemes mentioned above, a new model with its corresponding management was proposed to meet the alfalfa water requirements under that particular field and weather conditions while we ensure a sufficiently dry soil surface at harvesting time for each soil case. This irrigation management includes twelve hours or irrigation every three days, for each of the three soils analyzed. It was found that the vertical rise of water above the emitters on the day of the cut, for our recommended SDI management was 26 cm, 29 cm, and 27 cm, with a moisture content at the soil surface of 14.9%, 24%, and 13% for the SCL, CL, and L soils respectively. Then, through the utilization of classical soil mechanics theory, an analysis to calculate the increase in stress on soils at any depth due to a load on the surface from a conventional tractor used during harvest operations was made for the proposed SDI system. The results from the increase in stress were then used together with soil strength properties such as shear strength as a function of soil moisture content to determine the minimum allowable depth of placement of the drip line tubing to ensure that soil failure does not occur. The load increase from a 3,300-kg four-wheel tractor was found to be 0.59 kg/cm2 under a rear tire at 10 cm below the surface and 0.07 kg/cm2 at 70 cm below the surface. To ensure that shearing failure does not occur, a stress analysis using Mohr’s circle indicated that the soil moisture content at 10 cm below the surface should be no greater than 26.8%, 32.7%, and 27% in the SCL, CL, and L soils respectively. The mimimum moisture content of 26.8% occur at 10 cm above the drip line for a SCL soil, which means that the minimum depth placement to avoid failure would be 40 cm below the surface. A similar analysis for the CL and L yielded minimum installation depths of 35 cm and 40 cm respectively. This type of analysis is useful in determining the depth of placement of SDI drip line tubing to ensure adequate trafficability of soil irrigated with subsurface drip irrigation systems. An additional outcome of the modeling study was the determination of the lateral extent of the wetted zone which can be used to determine the appropriate lateral spacing between drip line tubing. Thus, to ensure adequate spatial coverage by a subsurface drip system, the maximum horizontal spacing should be of 80 cm for SCL and L soils and 90 cm in CL soils.