Primates have traditionally been viewed as having a poorly developed sense of smell. However, in recent years, studies have shown that at least some primate species use olfaction in a number of behaviors, and that they have a high olfactory sensitivity for various chemical classes of odorants. Using a two-choice instrumental conditioning paradigm, the present study assessed olfactor ydetection thresholds of three spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) for eight aliphatic alcohols and aldehydes, known as "green odors". With all odorants, the animals detected concentrations below 1 parts per million, with single individuals performing even better. The type of functional group present systematically affected olfactory detection thresholds, whereas the presence, position and configuration of a double bond did not. Compared to previously tested classes of odorants, thespider monkeys were not particularly sensitive to "green odors". Furthermore, they are lesssensitive for "green odors" compared to humans and mice. The present results suggest that neuroanatomical and genetic comparisons across species are poor predictors of olfactory sensitivity.

Self-directed behaviours (SDB) were recorded as a behavioural indicator of arousal in free-ranging vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) inhabiting the Klein Karoo of South Africa. Measurement of SDB allowed for changes in arousal to be correlated with particular social situations, potentially providing insight into how monkeys perceive their social world. The research presented here is divided into three core chapters demonstrating that 1) arousal is influenced to a greater extent by degree of association than by hierarchical rank, 2) that an individual‟s level of arousal is influenced by its neighbour‟s spatial location, and 3) that habituated animals that no longer perceive humans as a direct threat nevertheless continue to respond to their presence in other ways. Overall, SDB appears to be a useful, non-invasive, simple means of investigating social arousal and its use has elucidated several key findings regarding the perception of social space and social partners in vervet monkeys. / ix, 103 leaves ; 28 cm

Submitted by (edna.saturno@ufrpe.br) on 2016-07-28T12:02:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Andriano Fernandes Ferreira.pdf: 3250606 bytes, checksum: 6443386e37e31b5a27168a5385e26d10 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-28T12:02:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Andriano Fernandes Ferreira.pdf: 3250606 bytes, checksum: 6443386e37e31b5a27168a5385e26d10 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-06-15 / The purpose of this study was to establish the hematological, biochemical and proteinogram profiles of tufted capuchin monkeys housed at the zoo from the João Pessoa’s city and the Center for Wild Animals Screening of the IBAMA. The 50 animals lived in captivity and conditions of management, food and environmental characteristics and climate similar and were grouped according to gender and age. Were determined the hemogram, biochemical studies (glucose, urea, creatinine, calcium, phosphorus, AST, ALT, AP, GGT, LDH, CPK, cholesterol, triglycerides, sodium, potassium, chloride, amylase, lipase, total direct and indirect bilirubin) and proteinogram (total protein, albumin, fibrinogen, C-reactive protein, globulin and its fractions alpha1, alpha2, beta and gamma). The results were submitted to analysis of variance and F test for comparison of means at 5% level of probability. The average values of erythrocyte, hemoglobin and hematocrit, were statistically higher in males, while lymphocytes were higher in females regardless of age. For the age group, it was observed that the erythrocyte, hematocrit, hemoglobin, leukocytes, bands neutrophils, eosinophils and lymphocytes showed higher values in young animals, regardless of sex. Urea, creatinine, GGT and CPK were higher in males than females, regardless of age. The urea and creatinine concentrations were higher in adults than young, while calcium, phosphorus, AP and CPK concentrations were higher in young monkeys, regardless of sex. Serum albumin’sconcentration was higher in females regardless of age. The sex affects the levels of betaglobulin, with greater concentration in the female group and the general group formed exclusively by adults. The age factor influence the concentration of total protein and albumin, where the adults had higher serum levels of total protein and lower levels of albumin, both in general group as those formed exclusively by male or female. In conclusion, the values for the variables of hemogram, biochemistry and proteinogram can be used as parameters of normality for evaluation of capuchin monkey created under the same conditions and using similar methodology, and that factors such as gender and age may influence some variables must therefore be considered when carrying a laboratory examination in this animals. / Objetivou-se com este estudo determinar o perfil hematológico, bioquímico e o proteinograma de macacos-prego procedentes do jardim zoológico da Cidade de João Pessoa e Centro de Triagem de Animais Silvestres do IBAMA. Os 50 animais eram mantidos em cativeiro e em condições de manejo, alimentação e características ambientais e climáticas semelhantes e foram agrupados segundo o sexo e a faixa etária. Realizaram-se o hemograma, dosagens bioquímicas (glicose, uréia, creatinina, cálcio, fósforo, AST, ALT, GGT, LDH, FA, CK, colesterol, triglicerídeos, sódio, potássio, cloro, amilase, lipase, bilirrubinas total, direta e indireta) e proteinograma (proteínas totais, albumina, fibrinogênio, proteína c reativa, fibrinogênio, globulinas e suas frações alfa1, alfa2, beta e gama). Os resultados foram submetidos à Análise de Variância e ao teste F, para comparação de médias, ao nível de 5% de probabilidade. Os valores médios de hemácias, hemoglobina e hematócrito apresentaramse estatisticamente maiores nos machos, enquanto linfócitos foram superiores em fêmeas. Em relação à faixa etária, hemácias, hematócrito, hemoglobina, leucócitos, neutrófilos bastonetes, eosinófilos e linfócitos apresentaram valores médios superiores em jovens, independentemente do sexo. Os níveis séricos de uréia, creatinina, GGT e CK foram maiores no grupo formado por machos do que nas fêmeas. Os níveis de uréia e creatinina forammaiores em indivíduos adultos do que jovens; enquanto cálcio, fósforo, FA e CK foram maiores em jovens, independentemente do sexo. No proteinograma, o sexo influiu sobre os níveis de beta-globulina, com maior concentração em fêmea no grupo geral e no grupo formado por adultos. O fator etário exerceu influência sobre a concentração de proteínas totais e albumina, onde os adultos apresentaram maiores níveis de proteínas totais e menores de albumina. Conclui-se que os valores obtidos para o hemograma, bioquímica sangüínea e proteinograma podem ser usados como parâmetros de normalidade para avaliação de macacos-prego criados sob as mesmas condições e utilizando metodologia semelhante e que, fatores como sexo e faixa etária podem influenciar algumas variáveis, portanto, devem ser levados em consideração quando da realização de um exame laboratorial nesses animais.

Introdução: A urocortina 3 (UCN 3) é um neuropeptídeo pertencente a família CRF, com seletividade de ligação a receptor CRF2. Em roedores as células UCN 3 se localizam principalmente em hipotálamo e amígdala, mas o mapeamento não foi realizado em modelo de primata não-humano. Objetivo: realizar o mapeamento da distribuição da UCN 3 no sistema nervoso central na espécie Cebus apella. Material e métodos: cortes de encéfalo de animais machos foram submetidos aos métodos de imuno-histoquímica e hibridização in situ para UCN 3. Séries adjacentes foram coradas pelo método de Nissl e hematoxilina-eosina. Resultados: Células UCN 3 se localizam principalmente em regiões hipotalâmicas, amigdalóides e límbicas. Há colocalização de UCN 3/CRF no núcleo paraventricular do hipotálamo e UCN 3/insulina em células <font face=\"Symbol\">b do pâncreas. Conclusão: a distribuição de UCN 3 em primata não-humano é semelhante à de roedores. / Introduction: Urocortin 3 (UCN 3) is a neuropeptide with 38-aa and member of the CRF peptide family, it is a selective agonist for the CRF2 receptor. UCN 3 cells in rodents showed containing- neurons found mainly in hypothalamic and amygdaloid regions. However, such mapping was not done in a non-human primate model. Objective: study the UCN 3 distribution in the brain of a monkey. Material and methods: frontal sections (40<font face=\"Symbol\">mm) were subjected to immunohistochemistry technique and in situ hybridization, Nissl and Hematoxylin-eosin staining. Results: UCN 3 cells were found mainly in the amygdaloid, limbic and hypothalamic regions. Double-labeled cells (CRF/UCN 3) were found in the PaMD and, in <font face=\"Symbol\">b cells (UCN 3/insulin) of pancreas. Conclusion: the distribution of UCN 3 in non-human primate is similar to the rodents distribution.

As teneurinas (TENs) são de proteínas de transmembrana com significante expressão no sistema nervoso central (SNC). Foi verificado que o último éxon dos genes das TENs codifica um peptídeo com elevada identidade ao fator liberador de corticotropina (CRF) sendo este denominado de peptídeo associado ao terminal carboxila da teneurina (TCAP-1 a 4). Estudos mostram que TCAP-1 controla o comportamento emocional possivelmente por modular as ações mediadas pelo (CRF). A distribuição do TCAP-1 no SNC de primatas poderia subsidiar os seus efeitos funcionais e as possíveis aplicações terapêuticas. O presente trabalho analisou a imunorreatividade e a expressão do RNA mensageiro do TCAP-1 no encéfalo de primatas não-humanos. Cortes frontais do SNC de macacos da espécie Cebus apella (n=3) foram selecionados e utilizados nas técnicas de hibridização in situ e de imuno-histoquímica. Neurônios imunorreativos e que expressam o RNAm para TCAP-1 foram encontrados principalmente em áreas que estão direta ou indiretamente envolvidas na modulação da resposta ao estresse e ansiedade. / Teneurins are transmembrane proteins expressed mainly in the central nervous system (CNS). The last exon of the teneurins exhibits a peptide sequence with high homology to corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), named teneurin c-terminal associated peptide (TCAP-1 to 4). TCAP-1 effectively modulates stress induced by CRF. Studies have pointed tha TCAP-1 could have important therapeutic applications in stress disorders. The analysis of TCAP-1 distribution in the primate brain could also give anatomical support to the understanding of its functional effects and possible therapeutic use. Thus, the present study focused on the distribution of neurons exhibiting immunoreactivity and mRNA expression to TCAP-1 in the monkey brain (Cebus apella). Frontal brain sections of three young male Cebus apella monkeys were submitted to immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization results showed that TCAP-1 is preserved in primate brain, mainly in areas directly or indirectly involved in the modulation of stress and anxiety.

A visão de cores é possível devido aos diferentes tipos de fotorreceptores e ao processamento pós-receptoral da informação gerada após ativação destas células pela luz. Análises genéticas, funcionais e morfológicas podem ser utilizadas no estudo da visão de cores. Neste trabalho, foram estudadas a genética dos pigmentos visuais de macacos do gênero Cebus e a genética e a psicofísica da visão de cores de humanos com e sem discromatopsias hereditárias. O sequenciamento dos genes que expressam as opsinas presentes nos cones L e M foi realizado em dois grupos de macacos-prego mantidos na UFRJ e na UFPA. Treze animais do Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho da UFRJ e vinte animais da Escola de Primatas da UFPA tiveram o sangue coletado, o material genético extraído e os éxons 3 e 5 dos genes que codificam as opsinas L/M sequenciados após amplificação por PCR. Os aminoácidos localizados nas posições 180, 277 e 285 das opsinas foram identificados e com este resultado foi determinada a curva de absorção espectral das opsinas. O resultado foi a caracterização de seis machos dicromatas, quatro fêmeas tricromatas e três fêmeas dicromatas entre os animais da UFRJ. Entre os animais da UFPA, dezesseis machos eram dicromatas, uma fêmea era tricromata e três fêmeas eram dicromatas. Entre os alelos encontrados nesses grupos, a combinação SFT, cujo pico de absorção espectral da opsina é de 546-553, foi descrita pela primeira vez no gênero Cebus. A variedade de alelos encontrada entre os dois grupos é devida às diferentes condições ambientais nos locais de origem dos animais. No estudo com humanos, a visão de cores de 19 sujeitos controles (5 homens e 14 mulheres) e 16 sujeitos daltônicos (14 homens e 1 mulher), moradores no estado de São Paulo (SP) foi avaliada através de quatro testes psicofísicos e análises genéticas dos pigmentos visuais. Estes resultados foram comparados com os dados descritos por Gonçalves (2006) em sujeitos daltônicos do estado do Pará (PA). Na correlação entre o fenótipo e o genótipo dos sujeitos estudados neste trabalho, foi observada uma correspondência de 100% entre a classificação da discromatopsia obtida com as análises genéticas e os testes psicofísicos / Color vision is possible due to different types of photoreceptors and to the post receptoral processing of the information generated after cell activation by the light. Genetic, functional and morphological analysis can be used as tools in the color vision studies. In the present work the genetic of the visual pigments from Cebus sp and the genetic and the psychophysics of normal and defective human color vision were evaluated. The sequencing of the L and M genes of 33 capuchin monkeys was performed. Blood samples were collected from 13 monkeys from Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho (UFRJ) and 20 monkeys from Escola de Primatas (UFPA), the DNA was extracted and exons 3 and 5 from L/M genes were sequenced after PCR amplification. For each animal the 180, 277 and 285 aminoacids were identified and the spectral absorbance curve was estimated based on their sequence. In the UFRJ group, six males and three females were identified as dichromats and four females were identified as thrichromats. In the UFPA group sixteen males and three females were dichromats and one female was thrichromat. The SFT aminoacid combination was described for the first time in the Cebus genera. The allelic diversity described in these animals is probably due to the distinct environmental conditions from the place of birth of the animals. In the human study 19 control subjects (5 men and 14 women) and sixteen daltonic subjects (14 men and 1 woman), all from São Paulo city, had the colour vision evaluated with 4 colour vision tests and with the visual pigment genetics. The results were compared to the data described by Gonçalves (2006) in daltonic subjects from Pará state. The correlation between phenotype and genotype of the subjects from SP had a 100% of correspondence in the genetic and psychophysical classifications of dischromatopsia

Researchers in the field of social learning have suggested that certain biases may exist in whom animals learn from, creating a non-random flow of social information. A number of potential biases have been proposed based upon theoretical models, including biases to copy more dominant individuals or individuals who receive the best payoff from their behaviour, but empirical evidence for these biases is lacking. This thesis presents the first examination of dominance-based bias in a wild population of primates and of a payoff-based bias in captive capuchins. In two field experiments, dominant and low-ranking females from each of three wild groups of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops pygerythrus) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa were trained to demonstrate contrasting behaviours to their group before observers were provided with a choice between the two modelled preferences. No evidence was found for a consistent bias to copy the behaviour of the dominant female in either experiment. Instead, in both experiments, a preference for one behaviour emerged, regardless of model rank. In the latter experiment, higher-ranking females were significantly more likely to match the dominant model's action than were low-ranking females. The low-ranking models were more likely than their high-ranking counterparts to switch behaviours, despite their trained behaviour continuing to be productive. An analyses of the observations revealed that observers were biased towards attending to kin, and observer age appeared to influence access to the dominant models, but no overall preference to attend to the dominant female was found. Together these findings indicate that kinship, sex, age and preferences for specific behaviours are more important factors than model rank in vervet monkey social learning. Finally, I examined whether captive tufted capuchins (Sapajus apella) utilized a payoff-based social learning bias in their foraging decisions. Subjects did not utilize public information when choosing between demonstrated resource-rich and resource-poor sites, suggesting that the social learning abilities of capuchins may not extend to determining the profitability of feeding sites, although limitations of the study are discussed.

Estudamos os cariótipos de 50 espécimes (22 machos e 28 fêmeas) de Alouatta clamitans (bugio-ruivo) com técnicas citogenéticas tradicionais e de FISH com as sondas de pintura de todos os cromossomos humanos. Para os machos, foram observados dois números diploides diferentes (2n=45 e 49), com a ausência aparente do cromossomo Y devido à translocação Y-autossomo, e sete fórmulas cromossômicas distintas, com 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 ou 24 cromossomos metacêntricos ou submetacêntricos e 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 ou 32 cromossomos acrocêntricos. Para as fêmeas encontramos uma maior variabilidade no número diploide (2n=46, 48 e 50) e cinco fórmulas cromossômicas distintas, com 20, 22, 23 ou 25 cromossomos metacêntricos ou submetacêntricos e 21, 25, 27, 28 ou 30 cromossomos acrocêntricos. Os cromossomos X eram submetacêntricos, com exceção de duas fêmeas que apresentaram heteromorfismo neste par, com um dos cromossomos submetacêntrico e o outro metacêntrico. O sexo dos espécimes foi confirmado pela análise dos cariótipos. Pares heteromórficos autossomos também foram verificados. Dentre os indivíduos procedentes da Grande São Paulo, foram observadas as mesmas fórmulas cromossômicas em espécimes oriundos de diferentes fragmentos florestais, indicando que a fragmentação ainda não levou ao isolamento genético destas populações. A redução do número diploide orientada no sentido norte-;sul foi corroborada, com espécimes procedentes do estado de São Paulo apresentando 2n=49 ou 50 além de um exemplar do extremo sul deste estado com 2n=48 e os demais indivíduos oriundos de Santa Catarina com 2n=45 ou 46. Com a aplicação das técnicas de bandamento GTG e de FISH, foi possível verificar o sistema sexual múltiplo da espécie, do tipo X1X1X2X2X3X3/X1X2X3Y1Y2. Esta é a primeira descrição citogenética molecular com a hibridação de todas as sondas de cromossomos humanos em exemplares desta espécie com 2n=48, 49 e 50. Alguns cromossomos que apresentaram diferentes morfologias entre os espécimes analisados e foram responsáveis pelas diferentes fórmulas cromossômicas observadas, apresentaram regiões que não foram hibridadas por quaisquer sondas humanas. A partir da técnica de FISH foi possível determinar que o exemplar fêmea com 2n=48 é resultante do acasalamento de indivíduos portadores de diferentes cariótipos, com um dos genitores com o número diploide típico de espécimes procedentes da região sul (2n=45 ou 46) e o outro típico de espécimes procedentes da região sudeste do Brasil (2n= 49 ou 50). Este padrão levaria à formação de dois trivalentes durante a divisão meiótica, com implicações causadas para a formação dos gametas que poderiam reduzir ou impedir a fertilidade dos indivíduos portadores deste cariótipo, constituindo um mecanismo de isolamento pós&minus;zigótico e indicando que as populações do sudeste e sul do Brasil já estão isoladas a ponto de constituírem espécies diferentes. Também analisamos com citogenética tradicional e com a hibridação de todas as sondas de cromossomos humanos um exemplar que foi apreendido pelo IBAMA e entregue ao DEPAVE-3 e que apresentou características morfológicas divergentes das encontradas para Alouatta clamitans. Os dados nos levaram a concluir que este indivíduo é um representante de Alouatta ululata, sendo esta a primeira descrição cariotípica desta espécie, restrita geograficamente ao norte do estado do Maranhão, Piauí e Ceará. Sendo assim, a citogenética se mostrou uma importante ferramenta para a identificação da espécie e da correta origem geográfica dos indivíduos, além de ter contribuído para evitar a introdução na fauna do município de São Paulo de um exemplar não endêmico desta região. Contribuímos também para a reintrodução de outros indivíduos que fizeram parte do Projeto &ldquo;Manejo e Conservação do Bugio, Alouatta clamitans (Primates, Atelidae) na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo: aprimorando o programa de reintrodução&rdquo;, em parceria com o DEPAVE-3. / We studied the karyotypes of 50 specimens (22 males and 28 females) of Alouatta clamitans (brown howler monkey) with traditional and FISH cytogenetic techniques with painting probes of all human chromosomes. For the males were observed two different diploid number (2n=45 and 49), with the apparent absence of Y chromosome due to translocation Y-autosome and seven distinct chromosomal formulas, with 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 or 24 biarmed chromosomes and 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 or 32 acrocentric chromosomes. For females we found greater variability in the diploid number (2n = 46, 48 and 50) and five distinct chromosomal formulas, 20, 22, 23 or 25 biarmed chromosomes and 21, 25, 27, 28 or 30 acrocentric chromosomes. The X chromosomes were submetacentric, except for two females who had heteromorphic pairs, with one of submetacentric chromosomes and the other metacentric. Autosomes heteromorphic pairs were also observed. Among the coming individuals in the Grande São Paulo, the same chromosomal formulas in specimens from different forest fragments were observed, indicating that fragmentation has not yet led to genetic isolation these populations. The reductions of diploid number oriented in north&minus;south direction was observed, with coming state specimens from São Paulo presented 2n=49 or 50 as well as an extreme Southern copy of this state with 2n=48 and other individuals from Santa Catarina with 2n=45 or 46. We verified the multiple sex chromosome system X1X1X2X2X3X3/X1X2X3Y1Y2. This is the first description of hybridization with all human chromosomes painting probes in specimens with 2n=48, 49 and 50. It was also determined that the female specimen with 2n=48 is the result of the mating of individuals with different karyotypes, with one parent with the typical diploid number of specimens coming from the South (2n=45 or 46) and other typical specimens coming from the Southeast of Brazil (2n=49 or 50). This standard would lead to the formation of two trivalent during meiotic division, with implications due to the formation of gametes that could reduce or prevent the fertility of individuals of this karyotype, being a post&minus;zygotic isolation mechanism and indicating that the southeastern and southern Brazil populations are already isolated enough to constitute different species. We also analyze a specimen that was seized by IBAMA and delivered to DEPAVE-3 and presented different morphological characteristics found to Alouatta clamitans, the species occurring in the supposed geographic region origin of this specimen (Ibiúna/SP). This individual was classified as Alouatta ululata, geographically restricted to the northern state of Maranhão, Piauí and Ceará. Thus, karyological studies proved an important tool for species identification and the correct geographic origin of individuals. We also contributed to reintroducing individuals who were part of the project &ldquo;Manejo e Conservação do bugio Alouatta clamitans (Primates, Atelidae) na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo: aprimorando o programa de reintrodução&rdquo; in partnership with the DEPAVE&minus;3.

PhD (Zoology) / Department of Zoology / A general introduction about the need for studying forest dwelling primate populations in fragmented landscapes and more specifically in the Soutpansberg is given in Chapter 1. Forests affected by fragmentation are at risk of losing primate populations over the long term. In addition, although the impact of fragmentation on primate populations has been studied in many places in Africa, Asia and South America there is no consensus of how the different primate species react to forest disturbance and fragmentation. This study aims to investigate the impacts of natural and anthropogenic forest fragmentation on the Soutpansberg samango monkey population including their distribution, genetics, and phylogeography, identifying threats and mitigation measures. To date, no detailed population level research has been undertaken on samango monkey populations in the far north of their South African distribution. By collecting a diverse data set, in addition to existing ecological data, this study generates conservation and management recommendations suited specifically to the study area and the study species and provides baseline data for future monitoring. Chapter 2 details how through creating an accurate forest distribution map and collecting samango monkey distribution records through surveys we were able to investigate how both natural and anthropogenic forest fragmentation influences the distribution of samango monkeys in the Soutpansberg. We explored forest patch occupancy and connectivity, determined the degree and nature of matrix utilisation and identified possible threats to forests and samango monkeys between the contrasting landscapes of the eastern and western Soutpansberg. Here we found that samango monkeys largely occupied forest patches <100 ha in size and that the Soutpansberg has very few forest patches > 100 ha available. We showed that samango monkeys used all components of the surrounding matrix and that lone or bachelor group males used the matrix more extensively than groups. We found that paved roads pose a major threat, however not a barrier, to samango monkey populations when navigating the matrix. Forest connectivity was found to be influenced by the distance between patches and possible corridors or stepping stones of isolated forest patches connecting them. Patterns found in this chapter contrasted between the eastern and western landscapes requiring different adaptive strategies from the samango monkeys and different conservation approaches from practitioners. In this chapter we conclude that samango monkeys, having evolved in fragmented landscapes, are comparatively tolerant and adaptable to a human- transformed matrix. In Chapter 3 we focused on the effects that natural and anthropogenic habitat fragmentation in the Soutpansberg has on the genetic diversity and structure of the samango monkey population in the mountain range. Here we used microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA data from faecal and tissue samples collected from four local samango monkey populations across the Soutpansberg. We also included samples from an outlying population on the escarpment south of the mountain, the most likely historical migration route into the Soutpansberg. Our analyses showed that the Soutpansberg population is divided across the mountain and that genetic diversity within the Soutpansberg decreases with increasing distance to the escarpment population and from east to west. We found a lack of contemporary gene flow suggesting that the Soutpansberg population is completely isolated from the closest source population in the escarpment and that populations within the mountain range are isolated from each other. Based on our results we suggest that extensive anthropogenic changes to the landscape in the eastern Soutpansberg and distance between high canopy forest patches in the western Soutpansberg appear to have reduced the ability of samango monkeys to disperse between sampling areas. Overall, we found that natural and anthropogenic fragmentation and geographical distance are potential drivers for the observed population genetic differentiation and that the matrix surrounding forests and its suitability for samango utilisation plays a role at the local scale. In this chapter we conclude that the degree of samango monkey population subdivision and the apparent lack of contemporary migration between populations raises concerns about the long-term viability of populations across the mountain range. Having identified road fatalities as the main direct anthropogenic threat samango monkeys are exposed to when utilizing the matrix, we further investigated this issue in more detail in Chapter 4. Here we aimed to get a better understanding of where roadkills most likely occur and how to mitigate these through using suitable canopy overpasses. As road fatalities threaten primate populations globally, we used the samango monkey (Cercopithecus albogularis) as a model species to test the suitability of two different canopy bridge designs through field experimentation and behavioural data collection for arboreal guenon roadkill mitigation. Analysis of actual roadkill data collected in the study area provided insights into the nature of high-risk localities. We showed that canopy overpasses are a viable intervention for mitigating arboreal guenon road fatalities, reducing the probability that monkeys will cross a road on the ground. Samango monkeys clearly preferred a pole bridge over a rope ladder design and canopy bridges were preferred to trees and the ground when the tree canopy was open. Pole bridges were also used by other non-guenon primates and non-primate species. We showed that although samango road kills were not predictable in time (no seasonality), adult female and immature fatalities were predictable in space, restricted to bisected riparian zones and roads close to intact forests. We further found that adult male road fatalities can be expected in seemingly unsuitable habitat areas. This chapter highlights the importance of the correct interpretation of spatial, temporal and demographic data on road fatalities and how experimental research prior to installing crossing structures could increase mitigation impact. In Chapter 5 we investigate the regional phylogeography of samango monkeys, providing a deeper understanding into their evolutionary history in repeatedly fragmented forest habitat due to paleoclimatic fluctuations. Here we used mtDNA and microsatellite data obtained from tissue samples from a coastal population (Vamizi Island) in Mozambique and compared this to existing data from South Africa. The additional analysis of Mozambique animals allowed us to further test the number and timing of radiation events of Cercopithecus monkeys in southern Africa. In this chapter we propose the occurrence of a single, north-south radiation event during the midPleistocene along the Afromontane forest belt and that after the Last Glacial Maximum, samango populations re-radiated into (re)established coastal forests on a more local scale. Taking the findings from all chapters together we provide overall conclusions and conservation and management recommendations in Chapter 6. Here we also include interview data to give insights into public perceptions of samango monkeys and possible human-primate conflicts as we consider this an important aspect of conservation planning. In this final chapter we conclude that although samango monkeys appear comparatively adaptable to changes in the matrix surrounding their forest habitat, direct threats and forest patch isolation by distance may pose risks to populations in future. We advocate that conservation and management strategies aimed at the longterm persistence of the samango monkey populations and their forest habitat across the Soutpansberg should be formulated separately for the eastern and western parts of the mountain range as differing landscape variables pose different threats to forest and samango monkeys, thus requiring separate conservation and management approaches. We further recommend explicit mention of distinct management requirements for maternal groups and lone or bachelor group males to achieve a holistic conservation approach for samango monkey populations on the landscape scale. Findings of our study are not only relevant for samango monkey populations in the Soutpansberg but also for populations elsewhere in South Africa and southern Africa generally where forests and samango monkeys share the same paleohistory and current anthropogenic threats. / NRF

No description available.