The Terminal Middle Period (3000 to 2000 B.P.) and the Transitional Late Period (2000 B.P. to 1500 B.P.) contain a number of diverse projectile point styles belonging to several cultural complexes. The cultural complexes studied here include: Pelican Lake, Besant, Outlook, Bracken, Sonota and Sandy Creek. The point styles associated with these complexes have been in the past separated on largely visual or subjective bases. Clarifying the projectile point morphologies during this period will allow for better interpretations of archaeological sites on the Northern Plains. To aid in this clarification, twelve projectile point assemblages from nine previously excavated sites on the Saskatchewan and Alberta Plains were studied. These assemblages were subjected to geometric morphometric and discriminate function analysis. Beyond these two avenues of analysis, the assemblages were also subjected to metric testing to determine if the point styles were more consistent with arrow or dart projectiles. During this time period, the technological transition from the atlatl and dart to bow and arrow appears to have occurred. As a result of the arrow/dart testing, a pattern of robustness was seen in the kill site assemblages as compared to the habitation site assemblages. This resulted in larger points being found in communal kill sites in the study suggesting a link between game size and hunting methods. The result from this analysis recommends a reduction in the independent point styles suggested by other researchers. The data trends towards the finding that two major cultural complexes existed in the Terminal Middle / Transitional Late periods in the studied region of Northern Plains, Pelican Lake and Besant. A third minor group morphologicaly between the two major groups.

Abstract MtDNA D-loop sequences and cranial morphometrics were used to analyze the phylogenetic relationships of bharal (Pseudois nayaur szechuanensis) populations. The habitat preferences of bharal were also investigated in Helanshan, Ningxia. The results from the analysis of mtDNA D-loop sequences and cranial morphometrics were in accordance. Among all populations analyzed, the phylogenetic relationships between populations in Lixian, Sichuan and Helanshan, Ningxia were most distantly related, while populations in Dulan, Qinghai and Subei, Gansu were close to one another. No matter in summer or winter, bharal generally prefer to stay in meadows, but they would appear in forests and shrubs as well.

The relationship between form and function is often used to elucidate the biological role of a structure. Hammerhead sharks offer a unique opportunity to study form and function through phylogeny. Because sphyrnid sharks display a range of cranial morphologies this group can be used to address questions about the evolution of cranial design and investigate the effects of changes in head morphology on feeding structures and bite force. Geometric morphometrics, volumetric analyses, morphological dissections, and phylogenetic analyses of the cephalofoil were used to gain insight into changes in cranial design through evolutionary history. External morphometrics and internal volumetric analyses indicated that while the external shape of the cephalofoil and placement of the sensory structures is variable through evolutionary history, the volumes of the internal cranial elements do not change. Constructional constraints within the cephalofoil were confined to sensory structures while feeding morphology remained relatively unchanged. Analysis of the morphology and biomechanics of the feeding apparatus revealed that through phylogeny the feeding system does not change among sphyrnid species. However, size-removed bite force was lower than predicted for all sphyrnid species except Sphyrna mokarran. Despite differences in head morphology between sphyrnid and carcharhinid sharks, the feeding bauplan is conserved in sphyrnid sharks with few changes to the feeding structures. Instead the chondrocranial and sensory structures are modified around the relatively static feeding core. Finally, the durophagous S. tiburo was found to consume hard prey in a manner that is biomechanically and morphologically different from other durophagous fishes. Furthermore, the diet of S. tiburo is constrained by the properties of its preferred prey.

Computed virtual models of anatomical structures are proving to be of increasing value in clinical medicine, education and research. With a variety of fields focused on craniofacial and pelvic anatomy there is a need for accurate anatomical models. Recent technological advancements in computer and medical imaging technologies have provided the tools necessary to develop three-dimensional (3D) functional models of human anatomy for use in medicine (surgical planning and education), forensics and engineering (computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis). Traditionally caliper methodologies are used in the quantitative analysis of human anatomy. In order for experts in anatomy and morphometrics to accept a transition to 3D volumetric data, it must be first validated as anatomically accurate. The purpose of this project was to create anatomically accurate models of modern human anatomy through the use of 3D medical imaging, such as multislice computed tomography (CT), and 3D computer modeling and reconstruction. This dissertation attempts to validate the models and address current morphometric methodologies with four separate studies. The important results found in these studies were: 1) Medical image data such as computed tomography scans can be used to create high-resolution anatomically accurate 3D models for education and research purposes. These models can be used in morphometric studies through virtual quantitative analyses. 2) 3D virtual models of the human pelvis are 100% accurate in the estimation of sex in the pelvis, which represents an increase in accuracy over current field methods. 3) 3D virtual models of the human skull are 95.1% accurate in estimating sex in the skull, which represents an increase in accuracy over current field methods. 4) 3D models of craniofacial anatomy can be used for soft tissue depth analysis studies and clinical image data is more representative of living individuals. By testing the imaging and 3D modeling technologies at several levels, we developed new methods for accurately analyzing virtual anatomy for an array of disciplines.

This study has looked at an assemblage of fossilised teeth from Mesozoic marine amniotes from the Kristianstad basin in southern Sweden in order to make an estimate of the ecomorph diversity within said assemblage through looking at the morphology of the teeth. This was done as a pilot study to see if further studies would be able to produce worthwhile results. The assemblage consists largely of isolated tooth crowns, mostly from small- to medium sized mosasaurs such as Clidastes and Eonatator, but also contains larger mosasaurs, as well as a couple of plesiosaurs and one species of a marine crocodile. The analysis was performed on images of teeth using software developed for use in morphometrics. The resulting graphs imply a division into three guilds; the first represented by the short and blunt teeth of the crocodilian, the second by the elongated teeth of the plesiosaurs, and the third by the knife-like teeth of the mosasaurs. Since the mosasaurs overlap to a high degree in tooth shape, but also show quite diversity in size, it is possible the main dividing factor would have been size rather than type of prey. Further studies would be able to get a more accurate image of the ecology of this fauna by increasing the number of specimen in the analysis as well as taking into consideration more factors from other studies of similar taxa, such as jaw sizes, bite marks and gut contents. / Det här arbetet har studerat fossila tänder tillhörande Mesozoiska marina amnioter från Kristianstadsbassängen i södra Sverige, med avsikt att göra en uppskattning av den ekomorfa spridningen inom gruppen genom att studera tändernas form. Detta är enbart en pilotstudie för att se om fortsatta studier kan ge givande resultat. Det studerade materialet är en del av en samling till stor del bestående av enbart lösa tandkronor, mest från små till medelstora mosasaurier, såsom Clidastes och Eonatator, men även från större mosasaurier, så väl som ett par plesiosaurier och en marin krokodil-art. För analysen användes en programvara specifikt utvecklad för morfometri. De resulterande graferna antyder en indelning i tre “gillen”; det första representeras av de korta och trubbiga tänderna tillhörande krokodilen, det andra av de långsmala tänderna hos plesiosaurierna, och det tredje av de knivlika mosasaurietänderna. Eftersom mosasaurierna överlappar till stor grad gällande formen på tänderna, men skiljer sig mycket åt i storlek, så är det troligt att det snarare var storleken på bytesdjuren, och inte vilken typ, som skiljde dem åt. Framtida studier skulle kunna ge en bättre bild av den här faunans ekosystem dels genom att inkludera fler exemplar i analysen, och dels genom att inkludera andra faktorer från studier av liknande taxa, såsom käkstorlek, bitmärken och maginnehåll.

<p>Fossil taxa are crucial to studies of brain evolution, as they allow us to identify evolutionary trends in relative brain size and brain shape that may not otherwise be identifiable in comparative studies using only extant taxa, owing to multiple events of parallel encephalization among primate clades. This thesis combines indirect and direct approaches to understanding primate evolution, by evaluating variation in the endocranial morphology of extant primates and their fossil representatives. I use a comparative approach to examine the relationships between interspecific adult endocranial volume and shape, and brain evolution and cranial form among extant primate clades and their fossil representatives. The associations are evaluated via phylogenetically informed statistics perfomed on volumetric measurements and three-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses of virtual endocasts constructed from micro-CT scans of primate crania. Fossil taxa included in these analyses are: 1) anthropoids Parapithecus, Aegyptopithecus (Early Oligocene, Egypt), Homunculus and Tremacebus (Early Miocene, Argentina), and 2) Eocene euprimates Adapis and Leptadapis (Eocene adapoids, France), and the Rooneyia (Eocene omomyoid, Texas). </p><p>The first part of this work (Chapter 2) explores variation in residual mass of brain components (taken from the literature) among primates, and evaluates the correlated evolution of encephalization and brain proportions with endocast shape, quantified via three-dimensional geometric morphometric techniques. Analyses reveal a broad range of variation in endocast shape among primates. Endocast shape is influenced by a complex array of factors, including phylogeny, body size, encephalization, and brain proportions (residual mass of brain components). The analysis supports previous research, which concludes that anthropoids and tarsiers (Haplorhini) share the enlargement of several key brain regions including the neocortex and visual systems, and a reduction of the olfactory system. Anthropoids further differ from strepsirrhines in endocranial features associated with encephalization--a more flexed brain base, an inferiorly deflected olfactory fossa--and those associated with brain proportions--a small olfactory fossa, and a more caudally extended cerebrum that extends posteriorly past the cerebellar poles. Tarsiers are unique in having a mediolaterally broad and rostro-caudally short endocast with an attenuated anterior and middle cranial fossae. This morphology is likely related to the extreme orbital enlargement in this taxon, which limits anterior expansion of the endocranium. Finally, despite the correlation between residual endocranial volume and endocast shape among modern primates, early anthropoid fossils demonstrate a disconnect between these factors in sharing key features of endocast shape with extant anthropoids at a relatively small brain size. </p><p>The second part of this thesis (Chapter 3) explores the relationship between craniofacial organization--cranial base angle, facial size, facial hafting--and encephalization via the lens of the Spatial Constraints and Facial Packing Hypotheses. These hypotheses predict that interspecific adult variation in encephalization correlates with endocranial shape such that a larger brain for a given body size will be more "globular" or spherical in shape. These hypotheses futher predict that basicranial angle covaries with encephalization and that the relative size of the endocranium and facial skeleton will have an antagonistic effect on basicranial angle and facial hafting. Results show that various measures of globularity have inconsistent and weak relationships to phylogeny, encephalization, and basicranial flexion, owing to a diversity of clade-specific scaling patterns between the maximum length, breadth, and width of the endocast. Among extant primates, there is weak but significant evidence to suggest that both facial size and encephalization influence variation in basicranial flexion. Considering the fossil specimens in isolation, their relative ranks in encephalization, basicranial flexion, and midline facial size and shape follow the pattern expected from the Spatial and Facial Packing Hypotheses outlined above; however, relative to modern species, the early fossil anthropoids have more flexed cranial bases and shorter facial skeletons at much smaller level of encephalization than seen in modern anthropoids. </p><p>Together, the extant data suggest a moderately conserved pattern of correlated evolution among endocranial size, endocranial shape, brain proportions, and craniofacial organization, which may explain differences in endocranial and facial shape between extant strepsirrhine and anthropoid primates; however, the fossil record for early anthropoid evolution demonstrates that a shift towards key anthropoid-like traits of the endocranium, basicranium, and facial skeleton were initiated early in anthropoid evolution, with subsequent encephalization occurring within and among members of this clade. Thus, these anthropoid cranial traits evolved in tandem with changes in the relative size of brain components, rather than absolute or relative brain size alone. Basicranial flexion, facial length and orientation are influenced by both: 1) shifts in endocranial shape associated with changes in brain proportion--accounting for the initiation of the anthropoid-like craniofacial plan early in the evolution of the clade--and 2) encephalization, which influenced subsequent morphological divergence among extant anthropoid groups.</p> / Dissertation

The parental stock of meat type chickens (broiler breeders) are commonly feed restricted to decrease their rapid growth and the issues associated with it. Among these birds, chronic hunger and stress are the most prominent welfare concerns and mass heterogeneity within flocks a major management challenge. The present study compared small and large broiler breeders of the same age within a flock, with the hypothesis that small birds would show signs of poorer welfare indicated by higher corticosterone concentration and heterophil/lymphocyte ratio as a consequence of higher experienced feed restriction due to competition. It also aimed to characterize morphometric differences between small and large birds within flocks as well as between birds on different feeding regimens; skip-a-day vs. every-day-fed. Heterophil/lymphocyte ratio at 4 weeks was significantly higher in large birds compared to small birds, but corticosterone concentration did not differ. Relative mass of the upper gastrointestinal tract, pancreas and liver of small birds at 4 weeks of age were significantly larger, while relative muscle and gizzard fat mass were significantly lower compared to large birds. 12 weeks old skip-a-day fed birds largely followed the pattern of 4 weeks old small birds. In the present study, no clear signs of poorer welfare in small broiler breeders could be seen and the morphometric differences might suggest different ways to cope with feed competition. A larger gastrointestinal tract might indicate long-term investments and maybe that smaller broiler breeders, and skip-a-day fed birds, are better habituated to feed restriction.

In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde anhand von 1042 extraoralen Fotos im Profil und en face untersucht, wie sich das Wachstum longitudinal bei 166 gesunden Kindern, je zehn Kindern mit isolierter Gaumenspalte, einseitiger Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalte sowie doppelseitiger Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalte operiert nach dem Leipziger Konzept entwickelt, sowie inwiefern sich die einzelnen Gruppen in verschiedenen Altersstufen voneinander unterscheiden. Dazu wurden pro Gruppe jeweils fünf Jungen und fünf Mädchen kaukasischer Herkunft, geboren in den Jahren 1994 bis 2001, mit einer nichtsyndromalen Spalte ausgewählt, die ab der Geburt über mehrere Jahre hinweg fotografiert wurden. Diese Fotos wurden digitalisiert und denen von Kontrollpatienten gegenüber gestellt. Anhand von Winkeln der klassischen Morphometrie und Grafiken und Statistiken der geometrischen Morphometrie wurden die Veränderungen im Wachstum analysiert und die Kontrollpatienten mit dem Leipziger OP-Konzept verglichen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die geometrische Morphometrie durchaus geeignet ist, das Gesichtswachstum anhand von extraoralen Fotos zu beurteilen. Weiterhin konnte bestätigt werden, dass mit dem Leipziger Konzept zur funktionellen Rehabilitation von Patienten mit Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalten sehr gute Operationsergebnisse und vor allem Langzeitergebnisse erzielt werden können.

Scleractinian cold-water corals are widely distributed in seaways and basins of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Straits of Florida. These corals can form extensive biogenic mounds, which are biodiversity hotspots in the deep ocean. The processes that lead to the genesis of such cold-water coral mounds and control their distribution and morphology are poorly understood. This work uses an innovative mapping approach that combines 130 km2 of high resolution geophysical and oceanographic data collected using an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) from five cold-water coral habitats in the Straits of Florida. These AUV data, together with ground-truthing observations from eleven submersible dives, are used to investigate fine-scale mound parameters and their relationships with environmental factors. Based on these datasets, automated methods are developed for extracting and analyzing mound morphometrics and coral cover. These analyses reveal that mound density is 14 mound/km2 for the three surveyed sites on the toe-of-slope of Great Bahama Bank (GBB); this density is higher than previously documented (0.3 mound/km2) in nearby mound fields. Morphometric analyses further indicate that mounds vary significantly in size, from a meter to up to 110 m in relief, and 81 to 600,000 m2 in footprint area. In addition to individual mounds, cold-water corals also develop in some areas as elongated low-relief ridges that are up to 25 m high and 2000 m long. These ridges cover approximately 60 and 70% of the mapped seafloor from the sites at the center of the Straits and at the base of the Miami Terrace, respectively. Morphometrics and current data analyses across the five surveyed fields indicate that mounds and ridges are not in alignment with the dominant current directions. These findings contradict previous studies that described streamlined mounds parallel to the northward Florida Current. In contrast, this study shows that the sites dominated by coral ridges are influenced by unidirectional flowing current, whereas the mounds on the GBB slope are influenced by tidal current regime. The GBB mounds also experience higher sedimentation rates relative to the sites away from the GBB slope. Sub-surface data document partially or completely buried mounds on the GBB sites. The sediments burying mounds are off-bank material transported downslope by mass gravity flow. Mass gravity transport creates complex slope architecture on the toe-of-slope of GBB, with canyons, slump scars, and gravity flow deposits. Cold-water corals use all three of these features as location for colonization. Coral mounds growing on such pre-existing topography keep up with off-bank sedimentation. In contrast, away from the GBB slope, off-bank sedimentation is absent and coral ridges grow independently of antecedent topography. In the sediment-starved Miami Terrace site, coral ridge initiation is related to a cemented mid-Miocene unconformity. In the center of the Straits, coral ridges and knobs develop over an unconsolidated sand sheet at the tail of the Pourtales drift. Coral features at the Miami Terrace and center of the Straits have intricate morphologies, including waveform and chevron-like ridges, which result from asymmetrical coral growth. Dense coral frameworks and living coral colonies grow preferentially on the current-facing ridge sides in order to optimize food particle capture, whereas coral rubble and mud-sized sediments accumulate in the ridge leesides. Finally, this study provides a method using solely acoustic data for discriminating habitats in which cold-water corals are actively growing. Results from this method can guide future research on and management of cold-water coral ecosystems. Taken together, spatial quantitative analyses of the large-scale, high-resolution integrated surveys indicate that cold-water coral habitats in the Straits of Florida: (1) are significantly more diverse and abundant than previously thought, and (2) can be influenced in their distribution and development by current regime, sedimentation, and/or antecedent topography.

This is a study of the factors that affect face shapes, and the techniques that can be used to measure variations in two dimensional representations of faces. The materials included thirty photographs of people in natural poses and thirty portraits that were based on the pose photographs. Visual assessors were asked to score the photographs and portraits in terms of pose (cant, turn and pitch) and also to compare the portraits to the photographs and score them in terms of likeness in the depiction of the face and its component features. Anthropometric indices were derived and used to score the images for the pose variables as well as for aspects of individual variation in external face shape and the spatial arrangement of the features. Geometric morphometric analysis was also used to determine the shape variation occurring in the photographs, the variation within the portraits, and to specifically discern where the portraits differ from the photographs in the depiction of head pose and individual differences in facial morphology. For the analysis of pose it was found that visual assessors were best at discerning the extent of head turning and poorest at discerning head pitch. These tendencies occurred in the visual assessments of both the photographs and the portrait drawings. For the analysis of the individual variation in face shapes it was found that external face shape varies according to upper face dimensions and the shape of the chin, and that vertical featural configurations are strongly linked to external face shape. When the portrait and photograph data were placed in the same geometric morphometric analysis the inaccuracies in the portrait drawings became evident. When these findings were compared to the visual assessments it transpired that, on average, visual assessment was generally congruent with the geometric morphometric analysis, but were possibly confounded by patterns of dysmorphology in the portraits that were contrary to what this study suggests are normal patterns of face shape variation. Overall this study has demonstrated that while anthropometric and visual assessments of facial differences are quite good, both were comparatively poor at assessing head pitch and tended to be confounded by the dysmorphologies arising in the portrait drawings. Geometric morphometric analysis was found to be very powerful in discerning complex shape variations associated with head pose and individual differences in facial morphology, both within and between the photographs and portraits.