I studied the relationship between coyote (Canis latrans) removal and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) density and fawn:doe ratios in southwest Wyoming and northeast Utah in 2007 and 2008. Coyote removal variables studied included the number of coyotes removed, ground hours worked, total hours worked, coyotes removed/aerial gunning hour, coyotes removed/ground work hour, and coyotes removed/total effort hour. None of the variables explained changes observed in fawn:doe ratios of pronghorn or mule deer. The number of coyotes removed, ground hours worked, total hours worked, and coyotes removed/aerial gunning hour were positively correlated with pronghorn density. However, none of the coyote removal variables were correlated with mule deer density. Coyote removal conducted in the winter and spring explained more variation and had a stronger positive correlation with fawn survival and ungulate density than removal conducted in the summer or fall. My results suggest that coyote removal conducted over large areas may increase density of pronghorn. However, coyote removal did not appear to increase mule deer fawn survival or density.

Mule deer provide recreational bunting to a large number of sportsmen in Utah, and also have a high aesthetic value. Prior to settlement, deer are believed to have wintered in the valleys and lower foothill areas. However, in northern Utah agricultural development bas removed many valleys and lower foothill areas from the available winter range. The winter deer range in this area has therefore been restricted to a relatively small area of foothill country, and low elevation mountain slopes and benches.

This study examined the nutritional responses of mule deer during winter on range subjected to a system of spring livestock grazing. The specific purposes were 1) to determine the quality (crude protein, digestible energy, and digestibility) of diets consumed by mule deer in winter on ranges grazed and ungrazed by sheep in spring, 2) to determine the level of forage intake, as determined by the external indicator chromic oxide, for deer under the same grazing regimes, 3) to compare forage intake estimates determined by the external indicator (chromic oxide) with results obtained by ocular estimation, and 4) to determine the forage intake level and quality consumed by fawns, adult does, and yearling male castrates used as experimental subjects during one season of the study. The study was conducted within the framework of a completely random experimental design with two treatments. Variables noted for each unit observed included treatment (previously grazed and not grazed by sheep), season (early-winter versus late-winter), weeks within season (four weeks per season), and sex-age class of animal (fawns, does, castrates). The study site , located at Hardware Ranch, Cache County, Utah, was a shrub:grass:forb community with sagebrush and bitterbrush as co-dominants. Two adjacent 2.4 hectare pastures were fenced. A sheep grazing treatment of 150 sheep days per hectare was applied in late May, 1974 and again in late May, 1975 to one pasture. Hand-reared mule deer were placed in each pasture at a stocking rate of about 100 deer days per hectare for three six-week seasons, two beginning in early November 1974 and 1975, and the other beginning near the middle of March, 1975. Artificial diets were carefully formulated for analyses of the forage quality indices. These formulations were based on the determined botanical composition of diets consumed by the mule deer. Forage intake was determined for two seasons by use of the external indicator method utilizing chromic oxide and these values derived were compared to intake levels determined by an ocular estimation method. No treatment differences existed for forage quality across the three seasons of this study. Mean values for the three qualitative parameters evaluated were: crude protein content, 9.9 percent; digestible energy content, 2.2 kcals/g forage consumed; and dry matter digestibility, 45.5 percent. There were no treatment differences in the level of forage intake, as determined by the external indicator, across two seasons of this study. Mean intake level was 38.1 g/kg body weight per day. No treatment differences existed for the ocular estimation method of determining forage intake and this method was judged to be inferior to the external indicator method of determining forage intake. Few temporal changes between treatments occurred in forage quality and quantity during the early-winter seasons. Some t emporal differences between treatments did exist for forage quality and quantity during the late weeks of the late-winter 1975 season. Deer displayed a marked shift from browse to herbaceous plant material during spring green-up. Deer on the pasture previously grazed by sheep began this shift about one week earlier than those deer on the pasture not grazed by sheep. Interpretation of the results of the forage quality and forage quantity evaluations suggest that deer on the sheep- grazed treatment deferred use of available browse plants and consumed more herbaceous plant material. Therefore, by shortening the length of time that over-wintering deer are dependent upon a browse-dominated diet of lower palatability, lowered quality, and lowered intake, the animals should survive the winter in better physical condition. Thus, this study has shown that sheep grazing of mule deer winter range caused no detriment to the nutritional well-being and may indeed benefit deer to a small degree, particularly at the time of spring green-up. This suggests that a greater animal production per unit area of rangeland can be realized through common use grazing.

Monitoring population trend and estimating vital demographic parameters are essential for effective management of a mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) population. Because of financial constraints, many wildlife agencies use computer models to obtain indirect indices of population size and trend as an alternative to annual field-based estimates of population size. These models are based primarily on herd composition counts and harvest rates from hunter-harvest surveys, and are rarely field validated. I developed an alternative method for monitoring population dynamics of wintering populations of mule deer. I designed a hybrid monitoring program that combined annual vital rate monitoring to track changes in population growth rate with a field-based approach for estimating population abundance. The program allocated resources optimally towards the most critical components of mule deer population dynamics, and consisted of 4 field surveys: annual monitoring of age ratios, overwinter fawn survival, and annual doe survival, with field-based estimates of population size only once every 4 years. Surveys were conducted from 2006 to 2008 in Wildlife Management Unit (WMU) 2, Utah, and cost $29,298 per year, prorated over 4 years. Unfortunately, financial constraints prohibit the implementation of this monitoring program in every WMU in Utah. Instead, the program can be implemented in select WMUs throughout the state, with survival data collected in these core units, providing estimates for nearby satellite units. To establish core-satellite unit pairs, I developed a proxy method for determining correlation in survival rates between core and satellite units using model-simulated estimates. I demonstrated this core-satellite method using WMU 2 as a core and WMU 3, an adjacent unit, as a satellite. Finally, I compared a multiple data sources (MDS) model with a herd composition-based population model, POP-II. The MDS model better approximated observed data, and provided statistical rigor. Overall, the hybrid program was less costly and provided more precise estimates of population trend than could be achieved with a monitoring program focused on abundance alone, and was more defensible than herd composition monitoring. After establishing correlations in doe and fawn survival between core and satellite units, data collected in core units via the hybrid program could then be used to model the mule deer population dynamics of other units using MDS modeling procedures. This combined approach could be an effective statewide program for monitoring mule deer populations.

Cougar (Puma concolor) predation has been identified as being one of several factors contributing to the decline of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) throughout the Western United States. In order to better understand how these elusive felines utilize their surroundings and prey, I examined and analyzed cougar predation behavior in North-Central Utah, using global positioning systems (GPS) data from 2002-2010. Twenty-three cougars were fitted with GPS collars and monitored for prey caching behavior. In total 775 potential cache sites were visited and 546 prey remains found. Mule deer comprised the majority of prey at cougar cache sites, but 11 other species were also found. Collectively, adult female mule deer were killed more than any other demographic class. Proportionally there was no difference in the sex or age class of deer killed by cougars in three different population segments, but seasonal differences were found in the number of kills made between cougar groups. Female cougars with kittens had a higher predation rate than males or solitary females, and seasonally more kills were made in the winter vs. summer. Cougars spent an average of 3.3 days on deer kills, and 6.2 days on elk kills. Habitat analyses suggested that cougars preferentially used Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) over other land cover types when caching prey, as well as selected unburned over burned areas for caching and foraging on prey. These results suggest that cougars utilize dense stands of vegetation cover when stalking and concealing their prey. Wildlife managers may want to consider the use of prescribed burns in areas of high cougar predation on mule deer. This habitat manipulation tool could simultaneously help mule deer populations by reducing the percent of stalking cover afforded to cougars when attempting to kill prey, along with increasing nutrient levels of newly burned foliage and allow for an increased diversity in forb and shrub species available to mule deer.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the fall proportion of fawns among fawns and does in a mule deer population and two measures of productivity, the spring recruitment rate and the reproductive performance as measured in the fall. The spring recruitment rate was defined to be the number of fawns per doe which were recruited into the population at 1 year of age. The reproductive performance was defined to be the number of fawns produced per doe 2 years or older which survive to a specified time. The relationships between these quantities were measured by calculating linear coefficients of correlation from data generated by a projection matrix model of a mule deer population. A coefficient of correlation of 0.86 was found between the fall proportion of fawns and the rate at which fawns are recruited into the spring population. A coefficient of correlation of 0.89 was found between the fall proportion of fawns and the reproductive performance as measured in the fall. The effect of misclassifying fawns as does and does as fawns on estimates of the proportion of fawns among fawns and does was also investigated. A comparison was made between the expected values of two estimates of the fall proportion, one with misclassification and one without misclassification. The misclassification of fawns and does was found to bias estimates of the proportion of fawns. The bias was found to be a function of the amount of misclassification and the actual pro, portion of fawns.

Dinosaur National Monument, in northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah, is comprised of 206,409 acres and contains several deer winter ranges. A need for deer studies developed because of winter deer mortality and deteriorating range conditions'on some parts of the Monument. Approximately 500 deer winter on the Yampa Bench and approximately 300 deer winter on the Island Park winter range. These are the two main winter ranges within the Monument. Deer on the Yampa Bench migrated an average of 7.3 air miles to the south and summered on the Blue Mountain Plateau during the summer of 1966. This Plateau is owned by the Bureau of Land Management and private individuals. Deer from the Island Park winter range migrated an average of 22.6 air miles to the northwest in 1967, onto the Diamond Mountain Plateau and the Ashley National Forest. Deer tagged on the Split Mountain winter range were found to travel to the south and west. These deer summered mainly upon private lands. Deer remain on Harpers Corner approximately 10 months of the year until deep snows force them to lower elevations on Yampa Bench in early February and from which they return in early April. Vegetation composition and density data gave evidence that the deer and sheep which use the west end of the Yampa Bench are competing for forage. Carrying capacity data suggest that sheep use of this area be reduced. Carrying capacity data for the Split Mountain range suggest that cattle use should be reduced. If grazing use was kept off this area until June, the grasses would have a better opportunity to put on good growth before utilization of them began. Other winter ranges within the Monument are well within their carrying capacity limits. Thus, a safeguard exists on most winter ranges against deer winter mortality. The physical condition of deer on the Monument's winter ranges was very good during the winters of 1966 and 1967. Consequently, deer winter mortality was found to be slight on the Monument's ranges during these two winters. A few does remain on winter range areas within the Monument to summer. They generally 'use the river islands and the relatively inaccessible canyon slopes as fawning grounds. Nearly all of the deer that winter within the Monument migrate to higher elevations off the Monument to summer. This makes them subject to reduction by hunting. Deer hunting pressure on the hunting units adjoining the Monument has in recent years been sufficient to keep deer numbers within their respective winter range carrying capacities.

A mathematical description of Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) habitat was developed and subjected to validation testing using correlation and multiple regression statistical techniques. Data were collected on a central Utah study area, which was divided into mountain and desert regions. Data on deer utilization and several habitat components from 86 study plots visited in 1976 were used to develop a habitat rule. Data from 46 study plots visited in 1977 were used to test the accuracy of the rule. Deer utilization was determined from pellet group counts on 20 0.001 ha pellet plots at each study plot. The regression model accounted for 53 and 43 percent of the respective variation in pellet group density in mountain and desert habitats observed in 1976. However, the same model explained only 8 and 0.02 percent, respectively, of the observed variation in the 1977 validation test data. Reliability and applicability of statistical habitat models and importance of validation of results are discussed.

The advent of GPS tracking technology has revolutionized the field of wildlife research. The ability to obtain fine-scale location data from collared animals allows for increased understanding of life-history events that have previously been difficult to research. An excellent candidate species for telemetry-based research is mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Mule deer are an important species economically due to their position as a harvested species. Additionally, they play an important role in the ecosystems they occupy; therefore information regarding important life history events would improve conservation and management efforts for this species. Our objectives were to use GPS tracking technology to explore two important life-history events in mule deer, parturition and natal dispersal. We developed and tested movement-based methods for detecting parturition in mule deer (Chapter One) and we used movement patterns to quantify the influence of various factors on dispersal of mule deer (Chapter Two). For Chapter One, we hypothesized that patterns of maternal movement could be used to predict the status and timing of parturition of mule deer. In order to test this hypothesis, we captured, collared, and confirmed parturition for 90 female deer in the state of Utah. We used the known dates of parturition to test the accuracy and precision of six different movement--based methods to identify parturition. We found that methods differed in both accuracy and precision, with the highest performing method displaying 98% accuracy and 93% precision (within seven days). For Chapter Two, we hypothesized that several factors (e.g. inbreeding avoidance, competition for mates, competition for resources, and migratory learning) would influence dispersal of mule deer. In order to evaluate the relative importance of these factors, we captured, collared, and tracked 303 six-month old mule deer fawns over the course of five years. We found evidence that inbreeding avoidance and migratory learning both influenced dispersal behavior of mule deer, while we found no evidence that competition for mates or resources influenced dispersal in this species.

Accurate estimates of parameters and demographic rates of wildlife populations are crucial to management and conservation. One parameter of interest is age because it influences multiple demographic rates and behaviors including reproduction, dispersal, migration, and disease transmission. There are a number of methods used to estimate ages of wildlife. One of the most common methods used for mammals is evaluation of patterns in dental eruption and tooth wear. In the first chapter, we evaluate the accuracy associated with estimates of age from dental eruption and patterns of tooth wear for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). In the second chapter, we use age estimates validated within the first chapter to explore how age and other maternal factors may influence number of offspring born per litter in mule deer. We further test relative support for two common hypotheses--terminal investment and reproductive restraint--regarding the relationship between age and reproductive investment in this species. Our results will inform conservation, management, and research efforts associated with mule deer.