Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-03-02T15:00:57Z No. of bitstreams: 1 michelefernandesrodrigues.pdf: 2239638 bytes, checksum: a1bfd99261016639937e0a5a3ee8fb49 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-04-24T01:36:07Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 michelefernandesrodrigues.pdf: 2239638 bytes, checksum: a1bfd99261016639937e0a5a3ee8fb49 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-24T01:36:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 michelefernandesrodrigues.pdf: 2239638 bytes, checksum: a1bfd99261016639937e0a5a3ee8fb49 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-04-10 / A tuberculose (TB) é uma doença de importância mundial. Os bacilos que causam a tuberculose entram no organismo principalmente pelas vias aéreas e a interação inicial nos pulmões é com os macrófagos alveolares, que servem como células hospedeiras. A morte dos macrófagos infectados por apoptose constitui uma alternativa de defesa do hospedeiro capaz de remover o ambiente de suporte para o crescimento bacteriano. No entanto, cepas virulentas de micobactérias parecem ser capazes de modular este processo. Alguns estudos tem destacado a importância do fator de necrose tumoral alpha (TNF-α) na modulação da apoptose de macrófagos infectados. O TNF-a exerce suas atividades biológicas através de dois receptores de superfície celular, TNFR1 e TNFR2, cujos domínios extracelulares podem ser clivados por proteólise formando receptores solúveis (sTNFR-1 e sTNFR-2). A sinalização através do TNFR1 desencadeia a maioria das funções biológicas do TNF-a, resultando em sobrevivência ou morte celular, enquanto que o TNFR2 induz a sobrevivência da célula. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a influência do TNF e seus receptores na modulação da apoptose de macrófagos alveolares durante a fase inicial de infecção por cepas atenuada e virulenta de Mycobacterium bovis, bem como, a possível interferência da micobactéria na sinalização TNF-TNFR. Para tal, camundongos C57BL/6 foram infectados, via intratraqueal, com as cepas atenuada (BCG Moreau) ou virulenta (ATCC19274) de M. bovis. Após 3 e 7 dias de infecção, os seguintes parâmetros foram avaliados: (1) expressão de receptores de TNF (TNFR1 e TNFR2) na superfície de macrófagos alveolares, (2) expressão gênica dos receptores TNFR1 e TNFR2, (3) níveis dos receptores solúveis sTNFR1 e sTNFR2 no lavado broncoalveolar e níveis de TNF-a no pulmão (4) freqüência da apoptose de macrófagos alveolares e (5) número de bacilos nos macrófagos alveolares. Além disso, o efeito do bloqueio da sinalização TNF-TNFR1 na modulação da apoptose de macrófagos foi avaliado em camundongos deficientes em TNFR1 infectados com M. bovis BCG. Um aumento significativo da apoptose e da expressão superficial de TNFR1 foram observadas em macrófagos alveolares 3 e 7 dias após a infecção com M. bovis atenuado, mas apenas no 7º dia de infecção com o M. bovis virulento. Baixa expressão superficial de TNFR1 e aumento dos níveis de sTNFR1 no 3º dia após a infecção pela cepa virulenta foram associados com reduzidas taxas de macrófagos apoptóticos. Além disso, uma redução significativa da apoptose de macrófagos alveolares foi observada em camundongos TNFR1-/- no 3º dia após a infecção com BCG. Estes resultados sugerem um papel potencial do TNFR1 na apoptose de macrófagos durante a infecção pela micobactéria. Neste contexto, a clivagem do TNFR1 parece contribuir para a modulação da apoptose de macrófagos. / Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease of worldwide importance. The tubercle bacilli enter the organism mainly via respiratory tract and initial interaction in the lungs is with the alveolar macrophages, which serve as host cells. Apoptosis of the infected macrophages constitutes a host defense alternative capable of removing the environment supporting bacterial growth. However, virulent strains of mycobacteria appear to be capable of modulate this process. Some studies have highlighted the importance of tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-α) in the modulation of apoptosis of infected macrophages. TNF-a exerts its biological activities via two distinct cell surface receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, whose extracellular domain can be released by proteolysis forming soluble TNF receptors (sTNFR-1 and sTNFR-2). The signaling through TNFR1 initiates the majority of the biological functions of TNF-a, leading to either survival or cell death, whereas TNFR2 induces survival. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of TNF-TNFR signaling in the modulation of apoptosis of alveolar macrophages during early stage of infection by virulent and attenuated strains of Mycobacterium bovis, as well as the possible interference of mycobacteria in this signaling. C57BL/6 mice were intratracheally infected with attenuated (BCG Moreau) or virulent (ATCC19274) strains of M. bovis. After 3 and 7 days of infection, the following parameters were assessed: (1) expression of TNF receptors (TNFR1 and TNFR2) on the surface of alveolar macrophages, (2) expression mRNA for TNF receptors, (3) levels of soluble receptors sTNFR1 e sTNFR2 in BAL and levels of TNF-a in lung (4) frequency of apoptosis alveolar macrophage and (5) number of bacilli in alveolar macrophages. Furthermore, the effect of abrogation of TNF-TNFR1 signaling in the modulation of macrophage apoptosis was assessed in TNFR1 deficient mice infected with M. bovis BCG. A significant increase of apoptosis and high expression of TNFR1 were observed in alveolar macrophages at 3 and 7 days after infection with attenuated M. bovis but only on day 7 in infection with the virulent M. bovis. Low surface expression of TNFR1 and increased levels of sTNFR1 on day 3 after infection by the virulent strain were associated with reduced rates of apoptotic macrophages. In addition, a significant reduction in apoptosis of alveolar macrophages was observed in TNFR1-/- mice at day 3 after BCG infection. These results suggest a potential role of TNFR1 in macrophage apoptosis during infection by mycobacteria. In this context, the shedding of TNFR1 appears to contribute to the modulation of macrophage apoptosis.

Les macrophages ont une contribution essentielle dans la bonne santé et la maladie. Comment les macrophages sont capables d'auto-renouvellement reste une question sans réponse. Au sein du laboratoire il a était démontré que les macrophages déficients pour MafB et c-Maf (Maf-DKO) ont la capacité de s'autorenouveller indéfiniment in vitro et ceci sans perdre leur identité de macrophages ni devenir cancéreux (Aziz et al. 2009). En utilisant les macrophages Maf-DKO comme outil d'étude de l'auto-renouvellement, nous avons pu identifier un réseau de genes qui permet l'auto-renouvellement des macrophages en absence de MafB. De plus nous montrons que des macrophages génétiquement non modifiés sont capables d'exprimer des genes du réseau d'auto-renouvellement des cellules souches embryoniques. Ce réseau d'auto-renouvellement est inhibé par MafB, qui peut-être sous exprimé in vivo. Les macrophages alvéolaires (MA) expriment constitutivement de faibles niveaux de MafB et c-Maf comme montré par Gautier et al. 2013. Les MA montrent une importante capacité d'auto-renouvellement, ils peuvent être amplifiés ex vivo. La surpression de MafB dans les MA in vitro et in vivo réduit la capacité d'auto-renouvellement de ces derniers. Nous avons finalement identifié GSK3 comme une cible pharmacologique pour l'inhibition de MafB dans les macrophages. Il a était montré que GSK3 tait nécessaire pour l'activation de MafB par phosphorylation directe. Nous avons montré que par inhibition de GSK3, les macrophages étaient capables s'auto-renouveler même s'ils exprimés de façon endogène/exogène MafB et c-Maf. / Macrophages contribute to essential functions in health and disease. Some macrophages are short lived but some macrophages are able to self-renew. However, in which manner macrophages are able to self-renew remains an open question. In our lab, we have demonstrated that macrophages deficient in MafB and c-Maf (Maf-DKO macrophages) can self-renew indefinitely in vitro, without neither loosing their macrophage identity nor becoming cancerous (Aziz et. al 2009).Using Maf-DKOs as a tool to study molecular mechanisms of self-renewal of macrophages, we have now been able to identify a network of genes, which allows macrophage self-renewal in the absence of MafB. We identified 25 genes, which affected only self-renewal. Additionally, we show that genetically unmodified macrophages are able to express self-renewal gene network. This self-renewal network is inhibited by MafB, which can be downregulated in vivo after mitogenic stimuli. Recently, Gautier et al., showed that Alveolar macrophages (AMs) constitutively express very low levels of MafB and c-Maf. We were able to demonstrate that AMs are able to self-renew in vitro and in vivo. Overexpression of MafB in AM in vitro and in vivo reduced the ability of AMs to self-renew. Additionally, we identified GSK3 as a pharmaceutical target for MafB regulation in macrophages. GSK3 has been shown to be required for Maf activation through direct phosphorylation. We showed that by inhibiting GSK3, macrophages were able to self-renew even if they were expressing endogenous or exogenous MafB and c-Maf.

A major factor in the success of Staphylococcus aureus as a pathogen is its vast arsenal of virulence determinants and, more importantly, the tight and precisely- timed regulation of these factors. Here we investigate the product of the S. aureus gene, SAUSA300_1984, encoding a putative transmembrane protein. This as yet uncharacterized protein belongs to the Abi (abortive infection) family, which are commonly annotated as CAAX-proteases, and are significantly understudied in prokaryotes. In S. aureus the disruption of SAUSA300_1984 results in a drastic reduction of proteolytic and hemolytic activity, as well as diminished pigmentation. This phenotype appears to be mediated through reduced agr expression, as determined by qPCR analysis. Importantly, known regulators of agr, such as CodY, MgrA, and ArlR, demonstrate no significant changes in transcription upon 1984 disruption, whilst major alterations were observed for downstream effectors of agr, such as sarS, RNAIII, rot and hla. Complementation and site-directed mutagenesis of 1984 demonstrated that proteolytic activity (via conserved EE residues) was not required for this phenotype, suggesting a potential protein-protein interaction mechanism of interaction. Proteome analysis of the 1984 mutant confirmed a number of our transcriptional observations, such as an increased abundance of Rot and surface associated proteins, as well as a marked decrease in Agr-system proteins levels, with the most striking being AgrB. Virulence profiling revealed a decreased ability of the 1984 mutant to evade constituents of the innate immune response, and impaired survival during murine models of infection. Given that SAUSA300_1984 is encoded 3 genes downstream of RNAIII, our current working hypothesis is that this Abi protein functions to control agr activity through communication with membrane components of this system, potentially via interaction with AgrB. Confirming this, and determining the upstream effectors of this regulatory system are studies currently ongoing in our laboratory.

Please read the abstract on page 3 in the dissertation. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Chemical Pathology / unrestricted

La Dégénérescence Maculaire Liée à l'Age (DMLA) constitue dans les pays industrialisés la 1ère cause de cécité chez les personnes de plus de 50 ans, et représente un enjeu majeur de santé publique d'autant plus important que le vieillissement de la population ne fait que s'accroître. La forme atrophique de cette maladie, pour laquelle il n'existe actuellement aucun traitement, est notamment caractérisée par une inflammation sous-rétinienne associée une dégénérescence des photorécepteurs, et conduit à une perte progressive de la vision centrale pouvant aller jusqu'à la cécité. Nos résultats montrent qu'au stade précoce de la maladie (MLA) on peut déjà observer de nombreux phagocytes mononucléaires (PM) dans l'espace sous-rétinien, en contact avec les drusen. Ces PM expriment de l'apolipoprotéine E (APOE), protéine impliquée dans l'homéostasie lipidique et la régulation de réponses inflammatoires, qui est retrouvée dans les drusen des patients atteints de DMLA, et dont le variant génétique APOε2 est associé à un risque élevé de développer une DMLA. Grâce à l'utilisation de souris Cx3cr1GFP/GFP déficientes en CX3CR1, un récepteur de chimiokine, et de souris humanisées APOε2, les travaux présentés ici démontrent que l'APOE exerce un rôle pro-inflammatoire conduisant de manière dose-dépendante à une altération du privilège immun sous-rétinien. Cet environnement immunosuppresseur est dépendant du FasL exprimé par l'épithélium pigmentaire rétinien (EPR), et empêche en condition physiologique la présence de cellules inflammatoires dans la rétine externe. Nos résultats montrent que l’APOE stimule de manière autocrine la sécrétion d’IL-6 par les PM, possiblement par un mécanisme impliquant une activation des Toll-like receptors (TLR) et de leur corécepteur CD36. Nous montrons que l’IL-6 inhibe l’expression de FasL sur l’EPR et altère sa capacité de clairance sous-rétinienne, ce qui facilite la survie des PM infiltrants au contact des photorécepteurs. La persistance de cette inflammation pathologique dans la rétine externe conduit au cours du vieillissement à une dégénérescence des photorécepteurs, phénomène qui peut est inhibé chez des souris déficientes en APOE. Ensemble, ces résultats permettent d’apporter une explication inédite au risque élevé de développer une DMLA pour les porteurs de l’allèle APOε2, et pourrait ouvrir la voie vers de nouvelles perspectives thérapeutiques. / Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD) is the first cause of blindness in people over 50 year old in industrialized countries, and represents a major public health concern as the population of elderly is more and more increasing. The atrophic form of the disease, for which there is currently no treatment available, is characterized by subretinal inflammation associated with photoreceptor degeneration and leads to a progressive loss of central vision that can lead to blindness. Our results show many mononuclear phagocytes (MP) are already present at the early stage of the disease (MLA), in the subretinal space and in apposition with drusen. These PM express apolipoprotein E (APOE), a protein involved in lipid homeostasis and the regulation of inflammatory responses, which is found in drusen in patients with AMD, and whose genetic APOε2 variant is associated with a high risk of developing AMD. Using Cx3cr1GFP/GFP mice (deficient in CX3CR1, a chemokine receptor) and humanized APOε2 mice, the work presented herein demonstrates that APOE exerts a pro-inflammatory role leading to a dose-dependent alteration of the subretinal immune privilege. This immunosuppressive environment is dependent upon FasL expression by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and prevents in physiological condition the presence of inflammatory cells in the outer retina. Our results show that APOE stimulates in an autocrine fashion the secretion of IL -6 by PM, possibly through a mechanism involving activation of Toll- like receptors (TLR) and their coreceptor CD36. We show that IL-6 inhibits the expression of FasL on the RPE and impairs its subretinal clearance capacity, which facilitates the survival of infiltrating PM in contact with photoreceptors. The persistence of a pathological inflammation in the outer retina leads to age-dependent photoreceptor degeneration, which can be inhibited in APOE-deficient mice. Taken together, these results provide novel rationale for the higher risk of developing AMD for APOε2allele carriers, and could allow the emergence of new therapeutic perspectives.

Heat shock protein (HSP)27 is traditionally described as an intracellular chaperone and signaling molecule, but growing evidence suggests it is released from immune cells where it plays an anti-inflammatory role during atherogenesis. Previously, the O’Brien lab found that overexpression of HSP27 led to augmented HSP27 serum levels in female apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE-/-) mice, attenuated atherogenesis, and inhibited macrophage foam cell formation via physical binding with scavenger receptor (SR)-A. However, the precise mechanism of atheroprotection remained elusive. This thesis sought to ascertain the mechanism(s) by which HSP27 prevents foam cell formation, and determine if SR-A, a key receptor involved in the uptake of lipid into macrophages, plays an important role in HSP27-mediated atheroprotection. Pre-treatment of human macrophages with recombinant HSP27 (rHSP27) inhibited acytelated low density lipoprotein (acLDL) binding and uptake independent from receptor competition effect. Reduction in uptake was associated with attenuation of expression of SR-A mRNA, total protein, and cell surface expression. To explore the signaling mechanism by which HSP27 modulated SR-A expression it was hypothesized that nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB), a major regulator of many atherosclerosis gene programs, is altered by extracellular HSP27. Indeed, rHSP27 markedly activated NF-kB signaling in macrophages. Using an inhibitor of NF-kBsignaling there was an attenuation of rHSP27-induced inhibition of SR-A gene and protein expression, as well as lipid uptake, suggesting that SR-A expression is regulated by NF-kB activation. Lastly, to investigate if SR-A is required for HSP27-mediated atheroprotection in vivo, ApoE-/- and ApoE-/-SR-A-/- mice fed a high fat diet were treated with rHSP25, the mouse orthologue of HSP27, or PBS for 3 weeks. While rHSP25 therapy equally reduced serum cholesterol levels in the mouse cohorts, aortic atherogenesis, assessed using en face and sinus cross-sectional analyses, was attenuated in ApoE-/- mice but not ApoE-/-SR-A-/- mice. In conclusion, rHSP27 inhibits foam cell formation by downregulating SR-A expression. This effect may be associated with NF-kB activation. Reductions in atherosclerotic burden by rHSP27 require SR-A, and are independent of changes in serum cholesterol levels, highlighting the importance of macrophage lipid uptake in atherogenesis. Results presented in this thesis demonstrate that SR-A is a major target for HSP27 atheroprotection in the vessel wall, and provide an impetus for further studies that investigate the potential therapeutic value of HSP27.

IL-12 family cytokines IL-23 and IL-27 play an important role linking innate and adaptive immunity, and regulating T-cell responses. The production of IL-12, a structurally similar cytokine, is decreased in chronic HIV infection; therefore IL-23 and IL-27 may also be influenced by HIV infection. I hypothesized that HIV inhibits LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in human MDMs by suppressing the activation of signalling pathways regulating their expression. In vitro HIV-infection of MDMs did not have any effect on basal secretion of IL-23 or IL-27; however, HIV inhibited LPS-induced production of IL-12/23 p40 and IL-23 p19, and IL-27 EBI3 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression, and IL-23, IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 secretion. In order to evaluate the molecular mechanisms by which HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 in LPS-stimulated MDMs, the signalling pathways regulating their expression were evaluated. The PI3K, p38 MAPK, and JNK MAPK pathways were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-27 secretion. Interestingly, in vitro HIV infection inhibited LPS-induced p38 and JNK MAPK activation in MDMs. In summary, I have shown that HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 production in LPS-stimulated MDMs and that HIV may inhibit LPS-induced IL-27 production through the inhibition of p38 and JNK MAPK activation. It is currently unknown whether PKCs regulate LPS-induced IL-23 or IL-27 in human monocytes/macrophages. I demonstrated that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 secretion within THP-1 cells, primary monocytes, and MDMs. Classical PKCs were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-12/23 p40, IL-23, and IL-27 secretion in primary human monocytes. Similarly, the classical PKCs were found to positively regulate IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-27 secretion in THP-1 cells. However, classical PKCs did not regulate LPS-induced IL-27 production in MDMs, or LPS-induced IL-23 production in THP-1 cells. Overall, this demonstrates that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in different myeloid cells.

The focus of this research is to describe the production and characterization of the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) in insect cells, using Autographa californica buclear polyhedrosis virus (AcNPV) as an expression vector. All three forms of biological activity of hGM-CSF. Following N-glycanase treatment, the two glycosylated hGM-CSF proteins (15.5 and 16.5 KDa) which bound to Concanavalin A affinity column ran as a 14.5-15.5 KDa band on SDS-PAGE. Western blot analysis of expression in Sf9 cells treated with tunicamycin revealed only the presence of the 14.5 KDa species. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the recombinant hGM-CSF was identical to that of natural hGM-CSF deduced from cDNA. These results demonstrate that baculovirus-produced hGM-CSF could be N-glycosylated in Sf9 cells, the signal peptide of recombinant hGM-CSF could be recognized and cleaved by infected insect cells and the resultant molecule secreted into the medium.

Abstract Macrophages found in the tumor microenvironment play a crucial role in initiating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment that negatively impacts immunotherapy efficacy and aids tumor progression and metastasis. Constituting the most abundant immune cell in tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) have emerged as an attractive approach for anti-cancer therapy. However, two major challenges need to be overcome for successfully utilizing macrophages for immunotherapy. First, tumors repolarize the TAMs predominantly to M2 tumor-aiding phenotype by secreting various immunosuppressive cytokines. Second, cancer cells overexpress a membrane protein CD47 that interacts with signal-regulating protein alpha (SIRPalpha) expressed on macrophages. This crosstalk provides a downregulatory signal in the form of activation of SHP1/2 that inhibits cancer cell phagocytosis, and CD47, therefore, functions as a “don’t-eat-me” signal. We rationalized that these challenges can be overcome by engineering a nanoparticle system that can deliver a rationale combination of immunomodulatory agents to the TAMs that can both repolarize the M2 macrophages to M1 phenotype efficiently and concurrently block CD47-SIRPalpha interactions by inhibiting SHP2 signaling. Herein, we designed a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) system loaded with amphiphilic R848-cholesterol in its hydrophobic lipid bilayer, while SHP099 gets encapsulated in the hydrophilic core. Our previous studies have shown that the conjugation of cholesterol to the inhibitor stabilizes the lipid bilayer at a high inhibitor concentration. The LNPs showed high optimal drug loading, size, and stability. In vitro studies showed that the M2 macrophages treated with the LNPs system repolarized to M1 phenotype and expressed co-stimulatory molecules while having enhanced phagocytic potential. In vivo efficacy studies in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice showed that LNPs exhibit superior anti-tumor efficacy compared to other treatments. We evaluated the effect of MARCO-targeted LPNs by the conjugating anti-MARCO antibody on the LPN surface. However, no comparable difference in treatment efficacy was observed between the targeted MARCO-LNPs and the non-targeted LNPs. These results demonstrate that the MARCO targeting system designed in this study is largely ineffective in the targeted delivery of its drug cargo specifically to TAMs. Thus, the lipid nanoparticle-mediated co-delivery of a rational combination of TLR7/8 agonist and SHP2 inhibitor in the TAMs increases M2 to M1 repolarization and phagocytosis potential of macrophages. Recommended Citation Malik, V., Ramesh, A. and Kulkarni, A.A. (2021), TLR7/8 Agonist and SHP2 Inhibitor Loaded Nanoparticle Enhances Macrophage Immunotherapy Efficacy. Adv. Therap., 4: 2100086. https://doi.org/10.1002/adtp.202100086

IFNγ is an essential and pleiotropic activator of monocytes, but little is known about the effects IFNγ on cellular metabolism. Therefore, we sought to characterize and elucidate the mechanisms by which IFNγ reprograms monocyte metabolism to support its immunologic activities. First, we identified a critical role for IFNγ in the induction of immunoresponsive gene 1 (IRG1) and its product, itaconate. The immunometabolite, itaconate, has been reported to have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. Irg1-/- mice, lacking itaconate, are highly susceptible and phenotypically similar to IFNγ knock out (GKO) mice upon infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Therefore, we assessed the role of IRG1/itaconate in the context of non-tuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infection, the most common type of infection in patients with immunodeficiencies caused by defects in IFNγ signaling. Our data suggest that impaired induction of itaconate in the context of mycobacterial infection may contribute to mycobacterial susceptibility and immune dysregulation in patients with defects in IFNγ signaling. Next, we evaluated the metabolic phenotype of IFNγ-stimulated human monocytes and found that IFNγ increased oxygen consumption rates (OCR), indicative of reactive oxygen species generation by both mitochondria and NADPH oxidase. Transcriptional profiling of human macrophages revealed that this oxidative phenotype was dependent on IFNγ-induced, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT)-mediated NAD+ salvage to generate NADH and NADPH for oxidation by mitochondrial complex I and NADPH oxidase, respectively. These data identify an IFNγ-induced, NAMPT-dependent, NAD+ salvage pathway that is critical for complete induction of the respiratory burst in IFNγ stimulated human monocytes.