京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第21801号 / 農博第2314号 / 新制||農||1065(附属図書館) / 学位論文||H31||N5173(農学部図書室) / 京都大学大学院農学研究科森林科学専攻 / (主査)教授 神﨑 護, 教授 北島 薫, 教授 大澤 晃 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Despite their important ecosystem benefits for terrestrial and marine flora and fauna and the human livelihood mangrove forests suffer a high loss rate mainly due to human activity. Aside from these impacts, natural forest disturbances exist more commonly in mangroves compared to other forests as a direct consequence of their exposed coastal location. Within this thesis I investigate the influence of natural disturbance regimes on the mangrove forest dynamics focusing in particular on the ecological role of disturbances, disturbance patterns, forest structure, succession behavior and long-term vulnerability evaluation. The study areas were set in the Indian River Lagoon in Florida (USA) and in Can Gio an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (Vietnam). In addition, theoretical simulation studies were carried out to complement the field studies. Thereby, in our study at the Indian River Lagoon site I investigated the ecosystem response to hurricane events of an artificially impounded mangrove forest. In Can Gio, the suitability of lightning strike – caused gaps for setting a homogenous plantation into more natural-like state according to species composition and forest structure was analyzed. Finally, a theoretical simulation study was carried out to compare lightning strike and hurricane events regarding their homogenization and heterogenization effects on the spatio-temporal forest structure. The findings of the field study in the Indian River Lagoon indicate that hurricane events had a severe impact on forest areas in higher successional stages by creating open patches, whereas areas in lower successional stages remained largely undisturbed. Furthermore, the impoundment determines the species selection of the post-hurricane succession by favoring flooding-tolerant species. However, regeneration was found to be impaired by the artificially high inundation regime at some disturbed patches. The lightning-strike disturbances enhance the species composition in the monospecific plantation in Can Gio by providing a sufficient light regime for entering seeds to establish. In addition, lightning-strike gaps increased the plantation structure complexity. Regenerating lightning-strike gaps remained as “green islands” within windthrow sites in the plantation due to their low stature and provided seeds for surrounding disturbed areas thereby accelerating their recolonization. The results of the simulation analysis of a theoretical landscape showed that in the simulated highly complex natural mature forests all disturbance regimes entail homogenization on the spatial structure compared to an undisturbed scenario. The hurricane scenario showed an increased temporal variation of the forest dynamics whereas lightning-strike gaps were not able to contribute to additional heterogeneity in the simulated area, despite of having the same tree mortality probability during disturbances. The interaction of the large-scale impoundment in the Indian River Lagoon and medium-sized hurricane events is characterized by partially impeded post-hurricane regeneration. In contrast, small-scaled lightning strikes influenced the regeneration of medium-sized windthrow sites positively within the homogenous plantation. We therefore suggest management activities aimed at creating small clearances within the plantation in Can Gio to simulate additional small-scale disturbances in order to facilitate heterogenization of the plantation structure. Natural disturbances are found to be able to enhance the species diversity and the interactions of ecological processes. In particular, where sustainable management strategies focused on maintaining ecosystem services especially in restored sites or plantations act as a supportive part. Natural disturbances are an integral component of mangrove forests and fulfill specific ecological functions. However, our findings indicate that these disturbances, on top of altered environmental conditions associated with climate change and direct human impacts, might jeopardize the natural development in unnatural forest structures as on plantations or restored sites. This thesis gives an extensive overview about the effect of various disturbances in different mangrove forest systems, including semi-natural forests and strongly modified plantations, on species composition and forest structure. Field studies and simulation analyses contribute in equal parts to the results of the thesis.

Sundarban Reserved Forest in Bangladesh is playing a significant role in local and national economy and is providing protection to the coastline as well as to the indigenous people. During the past decades and also in recent time this forest was heavily disturbed by human intervention in many aspects. As a consequence the resources of the forest are fragmenting, shrinking and declining, which in turn leads to an increasing failure of satisfying increasing demands both at local and national levels. Therefore accurate and continuously updated spatial information is needed for optimising forest management and environmental planning on both levels to support the fulfilment of urgent needs of sustainability of the forest. Considering the specific topography and the poor accessibility of the forest versus the task of collecting information, remote sensing is an attractive, if not the only means of obtaining sound full-coverage spatial information on forest cover of Sundarban. This research used medium resolution Landsat ETM data of November 2000 and Landsat TM data of January 1989 to assess and monitor the forest for 1. Identification of the operational tools for mapping and monitoring the forest as well as on the examination of the reliability of the application of multitemporal satellite remote sensing data for building spatial databases on forest cover in Sundarban. 2. Based on the existing management plan of the forest as well as the spectral properties of Landsat ETM imagery a level III classification system was developed. 3. This classification strategy was tested by applying several methods to achieve the classification result with the highest accuracy and thus to build the most reliable methodology for mapping forest cover in Sundarban. 4. Forest cover change was assessed for the period of eleven years. Significant changes have been observed due to illegal removal of trees from the forest although a governmental moratorium on banning timber extraction exists since 1989. 5. Development of an operational monitoring scheme by means of multitemporal satellite imagery analysis, which will allow concerned authorities to set up sustainable and appropriate monitoring of the Sundarban Reserved Forest. / Das Schutzgebiet des Sundarban Mangrovenwaldes in Bangladesh spielt eine entscheidende Rolle in Hinsicht auf nationale und lokale sozio-ökonomische und sozio-ökologische Aspekte. Das Waldgebiet stabilisiert nicht nur die Küstenlinie, sondern schützt auch die Bevölkerung vor den Einflüssen von Flutkatastrophen. Durch menschlichen Einfluss wurde die Region während der letzten Jahrzehnte mehr und mehr unmittelbar gestört. Der Rückgang des Ertrags an Ressourcen aus dem Wald führte zu wachsender Unzufriedenheit in der von diesen Nutzungs-möglichkeiten abhängigen Bevölkerung. Um eine Optimierung des Waldmanagements durchführen zu können, werden kontinuierliche und genaue raumbezogene Daten benötigt. Betrachtet man die spezifische Topographie und die schlechte Zugänglichkeit der Waldgebiete, so bietet die Fernerkundung eine attraktive Möglichkeit, raumbezogene Informationen für die großen Flächen des Sundurban Mangrovenwaldes zu erfassen. Zur Analyse und Überwachung der Waldgebiete wurden zwei Satellitenbild-Datensätze mit mittlerer Auflösung verwendet, und zwar Landsat ETM Daten aus dem Jahre 2000 (November) sowie Landsat TM Daten aus dem Jahre 1989 (Januar). Die zentralen Aktivitäten im Rahmen der Bearbeitung der Dissertation beziehen sich auf 1. die Identifikation der notwendigen Werkzeuge für eine erfolgreiche Kartierung und Überwachung der Waldgebiete sowie Untersuchung der Zuverlässigkeit multi-temporaler Fernerkundungsdaten für den Aufbau einer Datenbasis für die Kartierung von Waldbedeckungsarten im Untersuchungsgebiet des Sunderban Mangroven-waldes, 2. die Entwicklung eines Klassifikationssystems nach dem USGS-Schlüssel (Auflösungsebene III) auf Grundlage des existierenden Managementplanes und der spektralen Qualität der Landsat ETM Satellitenbilddaten, 3. den Test der Klassifikationsstrategie durch Adaption unterschiedlicher Methoden und Optimierung in bezug auf Erzielung eines Ergebnisses in maximal erreichbarer Genauigkeit als Ausgangspunkt für den Aufbau einer Methodologie zum Monitoring des Sunderban Mangrovenwaldes, 4. die Extraktion der Veränderungen der Waldbedeckung über ein Zeitintervall von 11 Jahren mit weitreichenden Erkenntnissen zur Dynamik der Degradations-effekte, die hauptsächlich durch illegales Fällen trotz Verbot durch ein Regierungs-memorandum seit 1989 beschleunigt wird, 5. die Entwicklung einer operationellen Monitoring-Struktur mit Hilfe von multi-temporaler Satellitenbildanalyse für ein nachhaltiges und angepasstes raumbezo-genes Management des Sunderban-Mangrovenwaldes.

REIS NETO, Armando Soares dos. Análise espaço-temporal da vegetação do manguezal no rio Ceará, Ceará, Brasil. 2013. 103 f. : Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Centro de Ciências, Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa e Pós-Graduação, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Desenvolvimento e Meio Ambiente, Fortaleza-CE, 2013. / Submitted by demia Maia (demiamlm@gmail.com) on 2016-04-19T12:30:58Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_asreisneto.pdf: 6243965 bytes, checksum: dc9a4abc37fe6bbff408f3851b886953 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by demia Maia (demiamlm@gmail.com) on 2016-04-19T12:43:25Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_asreisneto.pdf: 6243965 bytes, checksum: dc9a4abc37fe6bbff408f3851b886953 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-19T12:43:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_asreisneto.pdf: 6243965 bytes, checksum: dc9a4abc37fe6bbff408f3851b886953 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Mangrove ecosystem occurs in Brazil in estuaries, shore lagoons and marine channels inside land, from the extreme North of the country, to well beyond the Tropic of Capricorn, near Laguna, Brazilians’ south coast. In the Ceará state (02°46 S), Brazil´s northeast region, the climate is semi-arid, with seasonal rains and high reception of solar radiation. In the last few decades the human occupations intensify in Ceara river estuarine complex, and modify the landscape in results of their actions, interfering in the natural development of the mangrove ecosystem. This case study reports a description and an analyses of the temporal-spatial development of the mangrove area in the Ceará river (Fortaleza – CE), focusing on new colonization areas in abandoned saltworks. It was produced thematic maps estimating the mangrove areas and the saltwork areas in the years of: 1968, 1997, and 2009 using remote sensing techniques. In 2009 the mangrove area was 1006.6 ha, 65% more than in 1968, the growth rate was 133.25 ha/10years between 1997 and 2009. In abandoned saltworks areas it was evidenced 395 ha of new colonized mangroves areas. A fitosociologic study was accomplished to demonstrate the detailed description of the mangrove forest structure. The mangrove forest near the main channel of the Ceará river is described as fringe, an advance development forest, with dominance of Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia spp., medium height of 10 meters, medium DHB 14,06 cm and density of 1333.33 trunk/ha. Down to the terrestrial environment it´s evidenced basin mangrove forests, in new mangrove´s colonization areas. The pioneer specie was Laguncularia racemosa associated with other associated species Portulaca oleracea (beldroega) and Batis marítima (brejo do mangue). Although the quantitative increment in mangrove forest areas the environment quality was considered low, due the evidenced of the variety of environmental impacts. To highlight the environment services it was necessary a systemic analysis approach of the flows of energy and matter. The relation between the human activities and the environment fluxes related shows the interference of the environment impacts in the environment services, for example, the shore fluxes (sediment deficit) fluvial-marine flux (estuary salinization and water contamination) and the gravitational fluxes (abandoned saltwork, soil impermeabilization and dense urban occupation in dune areas). Consideration about the state resolution COEMA n° 02/2002 were made to discuss the recent flexibilization of Brazilian environmental legislation, in order to provide legal tools to appropriations of mangrove areas to industry exploration, the case of shrimp farms legalization. A new posture in mangrove conservation programs in the Ceará river would represent higher costs of opportunities in a sustainability receipt of human development in estuary regions and shore areas in the Ceará state, in Brazil and in the whole world. The Ceará river recuperation will only be possible after the mitigation of the main environmental impacts. It is recommended to install priority conservation zones, natural regeneration monitoring zones and environment rehabilitation zones, in order to enhance the mangrove management plan. / Os manguezais estão distribuídos do extremo norte do Brasil até Laguna, região costeira sul do país, ocorrendo em estuários, lagoas litorâneas e canais de maré. No estado do Ceará (02°46 S), nordeste brasileiro, o clima semi-árido apresenta características que condicionam o crescimento dos bosques de mangue como a sazonalidade das chuvas e a alta incidência de radiação solar. As características climáticas favoreceram a escolha pela região para implementação da industria salineira no século passado, como no caso do complexo estuarino do rio Ceará, localizado na divisa costeira entre os municípios de Fortaleza e Caucaia. O presente estudo descreve e analisa a evolução espaço-temporal do manguezal do rio Ceará (Fortaleza-CE), com foco na colonização da vegetação típica de mangue em áreas de salinas abandonadas. O estudo da paisagem foi realizado através de técnicas de sensoriamento remoto, uso de fotografias áreas e imagens de satélites, além de visitas de campo, sendo produzidos e analisados mapas temáticos dos anos de 1968, 1997 e 2009, estimando-se as áreas de manguezais e de salinas para cada ano. Para o ano de 2009, foram estimados 1006,6 ha de manguezais, 165% a mais do que em 1968, apresentando sua maior taxa de crescimento por década entre 1997 e 2009, de 133,25ha/10anos. No período estudado de 41 anos uma área de 395 ha de salinas abandonadas foi colonizada naturalmente por bosques de mangue. Uma descrição mais detalhada da estrutura desses bosques foi realizada através do estudo fitossociológico na salina Margarida. Na região mais próxima à margem do rio foi encontrado um bosque em um estágio de desenvolvimento avançado, com dominância de Rhizophora mangle e presença de Avicennia spp., altura média do bosque 10m, DAP médio 14,06 cm e densidade de 1333,33trocos/ha. Em direção ao continente, evidenciou-se um bosque em processo de colonização inicial na salina, sendo a espécie pioneira Laguncularia racemosa associada à outras espécies vegetais, Portulaca oleracea (beldroega) e a Batis marítima (brejo do mangue). Apesar do crescimento quantitativo dos bosques de mangue foram evidenciados diversos impactos ambientais, que acumulados, ocasionaram desequilíbrio ambiental e perda qualitativa nos benefícios proporcionados pelo manguezal do rio Ceará. Para evidenciar os bens e serviços do ecossistema foi realizada uma análise sistêmica dos fluxos de matéria e energia que compõe o complexo estuarino do rio Ceará. A relação dos fluxos com as atividades humanas estabelecidas no ambiente evidenciaram principalmente uma interferência dos impactos ambientais nos serviços ambientais relacionados com os fluxos litorâneos (construção de espigões e déficit de sedimentos na costa), fluxos fluvio-marinhos (salinização do estuário e contaminação das águas) e os fluxos de sedimentos e gravitacionais (abandono das salinas, impermeabilização do solo e ocupação intensa nas áreas de dunas). A partir das evidências da recuperação do manguezal em áreas de salinas abandonadas no rio Ceará, põe-se em discussão as definições da resolução estadual 02/2002 do COEMA, ao legitimar a conversão de áreas de salinas e apicum para o estabelecimento da carcinicultura, em detrimento de recuperar e conservar os serviços ambientais já disponíveis no ecossistema manguezal. Uma nova postura de conservação do manguezal do rio Ceará representaria custos de oportunidade maiores em uma receita sustentável do desenvolvimento humano nas regiões estuarinas e áreas litorâneas do estado no Ceará, no Brasil e no mundo. A recuperação do manguezal do rio Ceará só será possível após a mitigação dos principais impactos ambientais. Para a gestão do manguezal do rio Ceará propõe-se um sistema de manejo baseado em zonas de recuperação de áreas degradadas, zonas de monitoramento da regeneração natural dos bosques de mangue e zonas de máxima conservação.

Sundarban Reserved Forest in Bangladesh is playing a significant role in local and national economy and is providing protection to the coastline as well as to the indigenous people. During the past decades and also in recent time this forest was heavily disturbed by human intervention in many aspects. As a consequence the resources of the forest are fragmenting, shrinking and declining, which in turn leads to an increasing failure of satisfying increasing demands both at local and national levels. Therefore accurate and continuously updated spatial information is needed for optimising forest management and environmental planning on both levels to support the fulfilment of urgent needs of sustainability of the forest. Considering the specific topography and the poor accessibility of the forest versus the task of collecting information, remote sensing is an attractive, if not the only means of obtaining sound full-coverage spatial information on forest cover of Sundarban. This research used medium resolution Landsat ETM data of November 2000 and Landsat TM data of January 1989 to assess and monitor the forest for 1. Identification of the operational tools for mapping and monitoring the forest as well as on the examination of the reliability of the application of multitemporal satellite remote sensing data for building spatial databases on forest cover in Sundarban. 2. Based on the existing management plan of the forest as well as the spectral properties of Landsat ETM imagery a level III classification system was developed. 3. This classification strategy was tested by applying several methods to achieve the classification result with the highest accuracy and thus to build the most reliable methodology for mapping forest cover in Sundarban. 4. Forest cover change was assessed for the period of eleven years. Significant changes have been observed due to illegal removal of trees from the forest although a governmental moratorium on banning timber extraction exists since 1989. 5. Development of an operational monitoring scheme by means of multitemporal satellite imagery analysis, which will allow concerned authorities to set up sustainable and appropriate monitoring of the Sundarban Reserved Forest. / Das Schutzgebiet des Sundarban Mangrovenwaldes in Bangladesh spielt eine entscheidende Rolle in Hinsicht auf nationale und lokale sozio-ökonomische und sozio-ökologische Aspekte. Das Waldgebiet stabilisiert nicht nur die Küstenlinie, sondern schützt auch die Bevölkerung vor den Einflüssen von Flutkatastrophen. Durch menschlichen Einfluss wurde die Region während der letzten Jahrzehnte mehr und mehr unmittelbar gestört. Der Rückgang des Ertrags an Ressourcen aus dem Wald führte zu wachsender Unzufriedenheit in der von diesen Nutzungs-möglichkeiten abhängigen Bevölkerung. Um eine Optimierung des Waldmanagements durchführen zu können, werden kontinuierliche und genaue raumbezogene Daten benötigt. Betrachtet man die spezifische Topographie und die schlechte Zugänglichkeit der Waldgebiete, so bietet die Fernerkundung eine attraktive Möglichkeit, raumbezogene Informationen für die großen Flächen des Sundurban Mangrovenwaldes zu erfassen. Zur Analyse und Überwachung der Waldgebiete wurden zwei Satellitenbild-Datensätze mit mittlerer Auflösung verwendet, und zwar Landsat ETM Daten aus dem Jahre 2000 (November) sowie Landsat TM Daten aus dem Jahre 1989 (Januar). Die zentralen Aktivitäten im Rahmen der Bearbeitung der Dissertation beziehen sich auf 1. die Identifikation der notwendigen Werkzeuge für eine erfolgreiche Kartierung und Überwachung der Waldgebiete sowie Untersuchung der Zuverlässigkeit multi-temporaler Fernerkundungsdaten für den Aufbau einer Datenbasis für die Kartierung von Waldbedeckungsarten im Untersuchungsgebiet des Sunderban Mangroven-waldes, 2. die Entwicklung eines Klassifikationssystems nach dem USGS-Schlüssel (Auflösungsebene III) auf Grundlage des existierenden Managementplanes und der spektralen Qualität der Landsat ETM Satellitenbilddaten, 3. den Test der Klassifikationsstrategie durch Adaption unterschiedlicher Methoden und Optimierung in bezug auf Erzielung eines Ergebnisses in maximal erreichbarer Genauigkeit als Ausgangspunkt für den Aufbau einer Methodologie zum Monitoring des Sunderban Mangrovenwaldes, 4. die Extraktion der Veränderungen der Waldbedeckung über ein Zeitintervall von 11 Jahren mit weitreichenden Erkenntnissen zur Dynamik der Degradations-effekte, die hauptsächlich durch illegales Fällen trotz Verbot durch ein Regierungs-memorandum seit 1989 beschleunigt wird, 5. die Entwicklung einer operationellen Monitoring-Struktur mit Hilfe von multi-temporaler Satellitenbildanalyse für ein nachhaltiges und angepasstes raumbezo-genes Management des Sunderban-Mangrovenwaldes.

Despite their important ecosystem benefits for terrestrial and marine flora and fauna and the human livelihood mangrove forests suffer a high loss rate mainly due to human activity. Aside from these impacts, natural forest disturbances exist more commonly in mangroves compared to other forests as a direct consequence of their exposed coastal location. Within this thesis I investigate the influence of natural disturbance regimes on the mangrove forest dynamics focusing in particular on the ecological role of disturbances, disturbance patterns, forest structure, succession behavior and long-term vulnerability evaluation. The study areas were set in the Indian River Lagoon in Florida (USA) and in Can Gio an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (Vietnam). In addition, theoretical simulation studies were carried out to complement the field studies. Thereby, in our study at the Indian River Lagoon site I investigated the ecosystem response to hurricane events of an artificially impounded mangrove forest. In Can Gio, the suitability of lightning strike – caused gaps for setting a homogenous plantation into more natural-like state according to species composition and forest structure was analyzed. Finally, a theoretical simulation study was carried out to compare lightning strike and hurricane events regarding their homogenization and heterogenization effects on the spatio-temporal forest structure. The findings of the field study in the Indian River Lagoon indicate that hurricane events had a severe impact on forest areas in higher successional stages by creating open patches, whereas areas in lower successional stages remained largely undisturbed. Furthermore, the impoundment determines the species selection of the post-hurricane succession by favoring flooding-tolerant species. However, regeneration was found to be impaired by the artificially high inundation regime at some disturbed patches. The lightning-strike disturbances enhance the species composition in the monospecific plantation in Can Gio by providing a sufficient light regime for entering seeds to establish. In addition, lightning-strike gaps increased the plantation structure complexity. Regenerating lightning-strike gaps remained as “green islands” within windthrow sites in the plantation due to their low stature and provided seeds for surrounding disturbed areas thereby accelerating their recolonization. The results of the simulation analysis of a theoretical landscape showed that in the simulated highly complex natural mature forests all disturbance regimes entail homogenization on the spatial structure compared to an undisturbed scenario. The hurricane scenario showed an increased temporal variation of the forest dynamics whereas lightning-strike gaps were not able to contribute to additional heterogeneity in the simulated area, despite of having the same tree mortality probability during disturbances. The interaction of the large-scale impoundment in the Indian River Lagoon and medium-sized hurricane events is characterized by partially impeded post-hurricane regeneration. In contrast, small-scaled lightning strikes influenced the regeneration of medium-sized windthrow sites positively within the homogenous plantation. We therefore suggest management activities aimed at creating small clearances within the plantation in Can Gio to simulate additional small-scale disturbances in order to facilitate heterogenization of the plantation structure. Natural disturbances are found to be able to enhance the species diversity and the interactions of ecological processes. In particular, where sustainable management strategies focused on maintaining ecosystem services especially in restored sites or plantations act as a supportive part. Natural disturbances are an integral component of mangrove forests and fulfill specific ecological functions. However, our findings indicate that these disturbances, on top of altered environmental conditions associated with climate change and direct human impacts, might jeopardize the natural development in unnatural forest structures as on plantations or restored sites. This thesis gives an extensive overview about the effect of various disturbances in different mangrove forest systems, including semi-natural forests and strongly modified plantations, on species composition and forest structure. Field studies and simulation analyses contribute in equal parts to the results of the thesis.

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