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Sobre a pretensão à universalidade dos direitos humanos: paradoxos e exclusõesCaixeta, Davi Mendes 14 March 2018 (has links)
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Previous issue date: 2018-03-14 / Human rights have been universally declared by important documents and international treaties, constitutionally guaranteed by several countries, in order to ensure the life, liberty, dignity of all people. Based on the human being, these rights were considered universal, inalienable, irrefutable. However, the political crises of the beginning of the twentieth century, such as world wars, nationalist conflicts, totalitarian governments, concentration camps, questioned the claim to the universality of human rights. Although they were affirmed as universal postulate for all mankind, many people and several social groups, like stateless persons and refugees, were totally deprived of fundamental guarantees, they were excluded from society. Thereupon, it is necessary to take a critical and sharp look at discourses involving the universality of these rights, to overcome a naive or idealized approach, and to consider how these rights were placed in a terrible paradox, revealing contradictions and exceptions. This research seeks to do a critical study about the claim to the universality of human rights, presenting and understanding the meaning of paradoxes and exclusions. The main question that inspires this work is: why are human rights, universally declared, denied on many occasions to many people and several social groups? The first approach discusses the paradoxes of universality contained in universal declarations, like the documents of 1789 and 1948. Another approach considers the problem of contradictions related to State, the sovereign, who declares and ensures rights, but also decides on cases of exception. This comment also highlights the situation of subjects who are excluded from society, and it analyzes paradoxes related to citizenship. The category of stateless persons emerges, they are rejected by society, excluded by State, deprived of all rights. Thereby, there is an intension to contribute to the dialogue on human rights, considering, mainly, people who are being excluded every day / Os direitos humanos foram declarados de forma universal por importantes documentos e tratados internacionais, garantidos constitucionalmente por vários países, a fim de assegurar a vida, a liberdade, a dignidade a todas as pessoas. Fundamentados no próprio ser humano, esses direitos foram considerados universais, inalienáveis, irrenunciáveis. No entanto, as crises políticas da primeira metade do século XX, como as guerras mundiais, os conflitos e querelas nacionalistas, os governos totalitários, os campos de concentração, questionaram a pretensão à universalidade dos direitos humanos. Embora tenham sido afirmados como um postulado universal para toda a humanidade, muitas pessoas e diversos grupos sociais, como apátridas e refugiados, foram totalmente privados das garantias e liberdades fundamentais, excluídos da sociedade. Diante disso, é preciso ter um olhar crítico e aguçado sobre os discursos envolvendo a universalidade desses direitos, superando uma abordagem ingênua ou idealizada, para considerar como esses direitos foram colocados num terrível paradoxo, revelando contradições e exceções. A presente pesquisa busca elaborar um estudo crítico sobre a pretensão à universalidade dos direitos humanos, apresentando e compreendendo o significado dos paradoxos e das exclusões. A principal pergunta que inspira este estudo é colocada da seguinte maneira: por que os direitos humanos, declarados de forma universal, são negados, em várias ocasiões, a muitas pessoas e diversos grupos sociais? Uma primeira crítica discute os paradoxos da universalidade contidos nas próprias declarações universais, como nos documentos de 1789 e 1948. Outra abordagem crítica considera o problema das contradições relacionadas ao Estado, o soberano, que afirma e garante tais direitos, mas também decide sobre os casos de exceção. Também se elucida a situação dos sujeitos que são excluídos da sociedade, analisando os paradoxos referentes à cidadania. Surge a categoria das pessoas apátridas, rejeitadas pela sociedade, excluídas pelo Estado, privadas de todos seus direitos. Com isso, pretende-se contribuir com o diálogo sobre os direitos humanos, considerando, principalmente, as pessoas que são cotidianamente excluídas
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Entrepreneurial urban governance and practices of power renegotiating the Historic Center and its plaza in Mexico City /Crossa, Veronica. January 2006 (has links)
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2006. / Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center; full text release delayed at author's request until 2009 Jun 15
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Wish you were here? : experiences of moving through stigmatised neighbourhoods in urban ScotlandClark, Andrew J. January 2004 (has links)
This thesis is about the use of the term social exclusion in contemporary Scotland and how it has given rise to the idea of 'excluded spaces' in political and academic commentaries on deprived neighbourhoods. It argues that, despite criticism, the term offers a useful way of re-assessing disadvantaged places, such that space (for example, in the guise of socio-spatial segregation) should be considered not only an outcome but also an input into processes of exclusion. This is illustrated through exploration of the reproduction of the frequently negative place-images surrounding two deprived neighbourhoods in urban Scotland. The thesis explores how such representation may stigmatise residents therein, ultimately resulting in the production of landscapes of exclusion. Use of a range of qualitative methods (though primarily biographical interviews) demonstrates how negative place-images are constructed and remain resilient to change while also revealing the concrete outcomes of such 'imagined' geographies. Overall, the thesis makes three main points. First, that the construction of 'imagined' and 'real' places are fluid and dynamic processes and differences between 'images' and 'realities' of places are neither as clear cut, nor as 'true' or 'inaccurate' as might be assumed. Second, that 'real' and 'imagined' representations of place are reproduced through practices in, and attitudes towards, place. And third, that migration processes are influenced by, and influential to, the construction of social and place identities. Construction of socio-spatial stereotypes reveals space to be both an outcome and input into processes of exclusion while also demonstrating how many of the taken-for-granted assumptions about disadvantaged neighbourhoods might be considered place-myths.
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Ministry with youth on the margins identity, story and healing among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning youth /Billups, Christie January 1900 (has links)
Thesis (D. Min.)--Catholic Theological Union at Chicago, 2007. / Abstract and vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 270-274).
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A good start in life revisiting racial and ethnic disparities in health outcomes at and after birth /Ma, Sai. January 2007 (has links) (PDF)
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Pardee Rand Graduate School, 2007. / Title from title screen (viewed on June 13, 2008). Includes bibliographical references.
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Rejection and pain sensitivity why rejection sometimes hurts and sometimes numbs /Bernstein, Michael Jason. January 2010 (has links)
Title from first page of PDF document. Includes bibliographical references (p. 28-32).
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Ministry with youth on the margins identity, story and healing among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning youth /Billups, Christie January 1900 (has links)
Thesis (D. Min.)--Catholic Theological Union at Chicago, 2007. / Abstract and vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 270-274).
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On the periphery : the female marginalized in five post-colonial novels /Manuel, Katrina, January 1997 (has links)
Thesis (M.A. )--Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1997. / Restricted until May 1998. Bibliography: leaves 105-114. Also available online.
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Writing marginality : history, authorship and gender in the fiction of Zoe Wicomb and Chimamanda Ngozi AdichieNgwira, Emmanuel Mzomera 03 1900 (has links)
Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis puts the fiction of Zoë Wicomb and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie into conversation with particular reference to three issues: authorship, history and gender. Apart from anything else, what Wicomb and Adichie have in common is an interest in the representation of marginalised or minority ethnic groups within the nation - the coloured people in the case of Wicomb, and the Igbo in the case of Adichie. Yet what both writers also have in common is that neither seems to advocate the reification of these ethnic groups in reformulations of nationalist discourse. The thesis argues that through their focus on various forms of marginality, both Wicomb and Adichie destabilise traditional notions of nation, authorship, history, gender identity, the boundary between domestic and public life, and the idea of “home”. The thesis focuses on four main topics, each of which is covered in a chapter: the question of authorial voice in relation to history; perspectives offered by women characters in relation to oppressive or traumatic historical moments; oppressive or traumatic histories intruding into the intimate domestic space; and the issue of transnational migration and its (un)homely effects. Employing concepts of metafiction and mise-en-abyme self-reflexivity, the study begins by considering the ways in which Wicomb’s David’s Story and Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun both reflect on the idea of authorship. Focusing on the ways in which each text draws the reader into witnessing authorship, the thesis argues that the two novels can be put into conversation as they both stage dilemmas about authorship in relation to those marginalised by national histories. Following on from this idea of marginalisation by nationalist histories, the thesis then proceeds to examine both writers’ foregrounding of women’s stories that are set in oppressive and/or violent historical times – under apartheid in the case of Wicomb’s You Can’t Get Lost in Cape Town, and during the Biafran war in the case of Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun. Utilising ideas about gender, history and literary history by Tiyambe Zeleza, Florence Stratton and Elleke Boehmer, the study analyses how, beginning with father-daughter relationships, Wicomb and Adichie wean their female characters from their fathers’ control so that they may begin telling their own stories that complicate and subvert the stories that their fathers represent. Drawing on Sigmund Freud’s theory of “the uncanny” and Homi Bhabha’s postcolonial reading of that theory, the study then turns to discuss the ways in which oppressive national histories become manifest in domestic spaces (that are usually marginalised in national histories), turning those spaces into unhomely homes, in Wicomb’s Playing in the Light and Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus. In both novels, purity (whether racial or religious) is cultivated in the family home, but this cultivation of purity, which is reflected symbolically in the kinds of gardens each family grows, evidently has “unhomely” effects that signal the return of the repressed, of that which is disavowed in discourses of purity. Since both Wicomb and Adichie are African-born women authors living abroad, and since the “unhomely” aspects of transnational existence are reflected upon in their fiction, the study finally considers the forms of marginality to the national posed by the migrant. Transnational migration is examined in Wicomb’s The One That Got Away and in Adichie’s The Thing Around Your Neck, placing stories from these two recently published sets of short stories into dialogue. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis plaas die fiksie van Zoë Wicomb en Chimamandi Ngozi Adichie in gesprek met mekaar, met verwysing na veral drie sake: outeurskap, geskiedenis en geslag (gender). Afgesien van ander kwessies het die fiksie van Wicomb en Adichie ‘n belangstelling in die fiktiewe voorstelling van gemarginaliseerde of minderheidsgroepe in die nasie in gemeen – die kleurlinggroep in die geval van Wicomb en die Igbo in die geval van Adichie. Nogtans beveel geeneen van hierdie twee skrywers ‘n reïfikasie van nasionalistiese diskoers aan nie. Die tesis voer aan dat, deur hulle fokus op verskeie vorme van marginaliteit, beide Wicomb en Adichie tradisionele konsepte van nasionalisme, skrywer-skap, geskiedenis, geslagsidentiteit, die grens tussen private en publieke lewe en die idee van ‘n eie tuiste destabiliseer. Die vier hoof-onderwerpe van die tesis is word elk in ‘n eie hoofstuk behandel: die kwessie van ‘n skrywerstem in verhouding tot die geskiedenis; perspektiewe wat belig word deur vrouekarakters in kontekste van onderdrukkende of traumatiese historiese momente; hoedat onderdrukkings- of traumatiese geskiedenisse die private sfeer binnedring; asook die kwessie van ‘n migrasie oor landsgrense en die ontheimingseffek hiervan. Deur die gebruik van metafisiese en mise-en-abyme selfrefleksie begin die studie deur te reflekteer op hoe Wicomb se David’s Story en Adichie se Half of a Yellow Sun [aangaande] die idee van outeurskap reflekteer. Deur te fokus op die wyses waarop beide tekste die leser betrek om skrywerskap waar te neem, voer die tesis aan dat die twee romans met mekaar in gesprek geplaas kan word, terwyl albei dilemmas van outeurskap met betrekking tot diegene wat in nasionale geskiedskrywing gemarginaliseer word, sentraal plaas. Volgende op hierdie kwessie gaan die tesis dan voort om albei skrywers se vooropstelling van vroue se verhale gesitueer in onderdrukkende of gewelddadige tye – onder apartheid in die geval van Wicomb se You Can’t Get Lost in Cape Town en gedurende die Biafraanse oorlog in Adichie se Half of a Yellow Sun – te ondersoek. Met behulp van idees aangaande gender, geskiedenis en literêre geskiedenis van Tiyambe Zeleza, Florence Stratton en Elleke Boehmer, analiseer die tesis hoedat, beginnende met vader-dogter verhoudings, Wicomb en Adichie hul vroulike karakters loswikkel van hul vaders se kontrole sodat hulle kan begin om hul eie verhale te vertel – stories wat die verhale van hul vaders kompliseer en ondermyn. Met behulp van Sigmund Freud se teorie van die onheimlike en Homi Bhabha se postkolonialistiese interpretasie van daardie idee, gaan die tesis dan voort deur maniere waarop onderdrukkende nasionale geskiedenisse in die tuis-ruimtes (wat gewoonlik deur nasionale geskiedskrywing gemarginaliseer word) manifesteer, met die onheimlike effek hiervan op die tuisruimte – beide in Wicomb se Playing in the Light en in Adichie se Purple Hibiscus – te ondersoek. In albei romans word reinheid ( van ras of geloof) in die familie-tuiste gekultiveer, maar hierdie nadruk op reinheid – simbolies gereflekteer in die tuine wat deur albei gesinne aangelê word – het wel onmiskenbare onheimlike gevolge wat die terugkeer van wat onderdruk is (in die naam van reinheid) aandui. Omdat beide Wicomb en Adichie vroue-skrywers is wat in Afrika gebore is maar oorsee lewe, en omdat die onheimlike aspekte van ‘n transnasionale lewensstyl in hul fiksie oorweeg word, beskryf die tesis die vorms van marginaliteit met betrekking tot die nasionale wat deur die migrant tot stand kom. Transnasionale migrasie word in Wicomb se The One that Got Away en Adichie se The Thing around your Neck oorweeg, wat die verhale uit hierdie twee versamelings in gesprek met mekaar plaas.
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Marginalisation in Southern Africa : perceptions of and reactions to state regimesLeysens, Anthony J.(Anthony Jan) January 2002 (has links)
Thesis (PhD) -- Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: During the last two decades of the twentieth century, the world economic order has
passed through a transformation which can be characterised as a shift away from the
idea of the "Keynesian compromise" to the idea or principle of greater openness and a
revision of the role of the state in macroeconomic policy formulation. As a result, and
to achieve the goal of global competitiveness, states have become more "outward"
orientated. The last twenty years have also seen an increase in the levels of inequality
within and between states, which means that the effect of economic growth on the
reduction of poverty is much reduced. Critics of the "openness" principle point out
that the policies of developing states should be more inwardly focused to ensure that
economic openness contributes more directly to the alleviation of poverty and
inequality.
Southern Africa is a region where the problem of inequality (particularly within
states) is prevalent. The Critical Theory ofRobert W Cox (CCT) suggests that one of
the ways in which increasing levels in inequality can be observed and analysed is to
determine how people are related to the dynamics (via their national economies) of
the contemporary world economic order. Are they marginalised, in a precarious
position, or integrated? Furthermore, Cox assumes that the marginalised are a social
force which could bring about transformation "from below." Following on from this
assumption a number of claims about the marginalised can be deduced from CCT:
they are inclined to political protest, they are dissatisfied with the political economic
system of their country, they are politically apathetic, they are prone to low levels of
political efficacy, they have turned "their back on the state" and belong to self-help
associations, they are more inclined to participate in the activities of civil society and
they are critical of neoliberal economic policies.
The study's primary empirical question investigates whether the attitudes which Cox
attributes to the marginalised are accurate. This is done through a detailed exposition
of his core theoretical framework and a thorough conceptualisationloperationalisation
of the marginalised, precarious and integrated. The area which is focused on is
southern Africa. The vast majority of people in the region belong to the marginalised
and the precarious components of Cox's economic hierarchy. They derive little or no
economic benefit from greater openness and outward orientated forms of state. The
question is whether they can be mobilised into a "counter-hegemonic social
movement" (as Cox foresees) and how they view the role of the state.
The second question is theoretical and is concerned with the usefulness and strong
points of Cox's explanatory framework compared to other approaches which either
(1) ignore the state as a point of entry for analysis, (2) regard it as the primary actor in
the international system, (3) or "bypass" it because they predict its demise in a future
post-sovereign world. I argue that it is incorrect to associate Cox's approach with the
work of Richard Ashley, Mark Hoffman, Andrew Linklater and Mark Neufeld and to
group them into a Critical Theory of International Relations school. Two important
differences between Cox and these scholars are his incorporation of the state in a
flexible, multiple points of entry framework and his resourceful combination of a
diverse number of sources.
The theoretical question is addressed by a substantive literature review of Cox's major
publications in English and a representative review of the contributions made by
Ashley, Hoffman, Linklater and Neufeld. In the reading of Cox's work, I focused on
the development of his thinking, his major influences and on the epistemology and
ontology of his core theoretical framework. The empirical question was investigated
through a nationally representative survey of seven southern African states
(Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe) which
was undertaken by a research consortium of the Institute for Democracy in South
Africa's Public Opinion Service during 1999-2000.
In terms of Cox's theoretical expectations ofthe marginalised the study found that, in
southern Africa; their political protest potential is lower than the integrated, they
participate less in politics and in civil society, they are not more inclined to belong to
self-help associations, they are inclined to accord slightly more legitimacy to the state
than the integrated, their economic values cannot be summarised as generally
unsympathetic to "market" orientated policies, and that the majority (significantly
more so than the integrated) think that the state should be the major provider of social
services. The marginalised are more tolerant of authoritarian political alternatives, but
are not significantly more dissatisfied (relatively) with the economy than the other
groups.
We cannot, therefore, uncritically accept Cox's assumption that the marginalised will
act as a potential source of transformation "from below." Furthermore, in the
countries which were part of the survey, the marginalised still regard the state as the
primary source for development assistance and social services. There was, however,
strong support for the claim that the marginalised are inclined to be more politically
apathetic and less politically efficacious.
A close reading of Cox's work and comparison with Ashley, Linklater, Hoffman and
Neufeld revealed that they share some tenets with CCT. However, they cannot be
grouped with Cox in a school of critical thought because their intellectual debt is
mainly located in the work of Habermas and the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory,
while CCT is influenced by a variety of sources (cf. Braudel, Carr, Gramsci, Khaldun,
Marx, Sorel and Vico). This is an important and essential distinction to make because
the empirical results of the survey data analysis validate Cox's focus on the mutual
influence between social forces, forms of state and world orders. It is, therefore, more
accurate to regard CCT as a "critical realist" theory of International Relations (cf.
Richard Falk, 1997).
It is recommended that, in a world order which is characterised by increasing
inequality and the outward orientated form of state, public policy practitioners in
developing states must reconsider the standard TINA (There is no Alternative)
response to the critics of the openness principle. A more balanced approach to
addressing inequality and poverty, which requires an outward/inward policy
orientation is essential. What is needed, is a form of state which creates opportunities
for the integrated but protects and assists those who are marginalised. This essential
inward orientation remains one of the state's primary responsibilities, even in a postW
estphalian world where there are other centres of authority. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Tydens die laatste twee dekades van die twintigste eeu het die wereld ekonomiese
orde deur 'n verandering gegaan. Hierdie verandering is gekenmerk deur 'n
verskuiwing vanaf die "Keynesiaanse kompromie" idee, na die idee of beginsel van
meer oopheid en 'n hersiening van die rol van die staat in makroekonomiese
beleidsformulering. Gevolglik, en om die doelwit van globale mededingendheid te
bereik, het state meer "uitwaartsgeorienteerd" geword. Die laatste twintig jaar is ook
gekenmerk deur 'n toename in ongelykheid binne en tussen state. Hierdie ongelykheid
het die impak van ekonomiese groei op armoede baie verminder. Die kritici van die
"oopheid" beginsel wys daarop dat die beleid van ontwikkelende state meer na binne
gerig moet word ten einde te verseker dat ekonomiese oopheid meer direk hydra tot
die vermindering van armoede en ongelykheid.
In die Suider-Afrikaanse streek kom die ongelykheidsprobleem (spesifiek binne state)
algemeen voor. Die Kritiese Teorie van Robert W Cox (CKT, Coxiaanse Kritiese
Teorie) doen aan die hand dat een van die maniere waarvolgens toenemende vlakke
van ongelykheid waargeneem en geanaliseer kan word, is om te bepaal wat die
verhouding is tussen mense en die dinamika (via die nasionale ekonomie) van die
hedendaagse wereld ekonomiese orde. Is hulle gemarginaliseerd, in 'n onsekere
posisie, of gei'ntegreerd? Daarby, is dit 'n aanname van Cox dat die
gemarginaliseerdes 'n sosiale mag is wat "van onder af' verandering sou kon
teweegbring. Voortvloeiend uit hierdie aanname, kan 'n aantal beweringe oor die
gemarginaliseerdes afgelei word uit CKT: hulle is geneig tot politieke protes, hulle is
ontevrede met hulland se politiek-ekonomiese stelsel, hulle is polities apaties, hulle is
geneig tot lae vlakke van politieke doeltreffendheid, hulle het hul "rug gedraai op die
staat" en behoort aan selfhelp-organisasies, hulle is meer geneig om deel te neem aan
burgerlike samelewing aktiwiteite en hulle staan krities teenoor neoliberale
ekonomiese beleidsrigtings.
Die primere empiriese vraag wat die studie ondersoek is om te bepaal of die houdings
wat Cox toeskryf aan die gemarginaliseerdes akkuraat is. Dit word gedoen deur 'n
breedvoerige uiteensetting van sy verklarende raamwerk en 'n deeglike
konseptualisering/operasionalisering van die drie ekonomiese kategoriee
(gemarginaliseerd, onseker, gei'ntegreerd). Die fokus-area is Suider-Afrika. Die
oorgrote meerderheid mense in die streek behoort tot die gemarginaliseerde en
onsekere komponente van Cox se ekonomiese hierargie. Hulle trek min of geen
ekonomiese voordeel uit meer "oopheid" en uitwaartsgeorienteerde staatsvorme nie.
Die vraag is of hulle gemobiliseer kan word in 'n "teen-hegemoniese sosiale
beweging" (soo Cox in die vooruitsig stel) en hoe hulle die rol van die staat beskou.
Die tweede vraag is teoreties van aard en is gerig op 'n evaluering van die
bruikbaarheid en sterk punte van Cox se verklarende raamwerk, in vergelyking met
ander benaderings wat of (1) die staat ignoreer as 'n vlak van analise, (2) die staat
beskou as die belangrikste akteur in die intemasionale stelsel, (3) die staat "omseil"
omdat hulle die ondergang daarvan voorspel in 'n toekomstige post-soewereine
wereld. Ek argumenteer dat dit verkeerd is om Cox se benadering te assosieer met die
bydraes van Richard Ashley, Mark Hoffman, Andrew Linklater en Mark Neufeld, en om hulle saam te voeg binne 'n Kritiese Teorie van Intemasionale Betrekkinge
denkskool. Twee belangrike verskille tussen Cox en die ander bydraes is sy
inkorporering van die staat in 'n buigsame, veelvoudige vlak-van-analise raamwerk en
sy vindingryke samevoeging van 'n diverse aantal bronne.
Die teoretiese vraag is ondersoek deur middel van 'n uitgebreide literatuuroorsig van
Cox se belangrikste publikasies in Engels en 'n verteenwoordigende oorsig van
Ashley, Hoffman, Linklater en Neufeld se bydraes. Die evaluering van Cox fokus op
die ontwikkeling van sy denke, die identifisering van diegene wat horn beYnvloed het,
en die kennisleer en ontologie van sy kem-teoretiese raamwerk. Die empiriese vraag
is nagevors deur die analise van 'n verteenwoordigende nasionale opname in sewe
Suider-Afrikaanse state (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibie, Suid-Afrika, Zambie
en Zimbabwe). Die opname is ondemeem deur 'n navorsingkonsortium van die
Instituut vir Demokrasie in Suid-Afrika se Openbare Meningsdiens tydens 1999-2000.
Aangaande Cox se teoretiese verwagtinge van die gemarginaliseerdes, het die
empiriese analise van die Suider-Afrikaanse data-stel bevind dat hulle politieke protes
potensiaal laer is as die van die geYntegreerdes, dat hulle minder deelneem aan die
politiek en 'n minder aktiewe rol speel in die burgerlike samelewing, dat hulle nie
geneig is om aan selfhelp-organisasies te behoort nie, dat hulle geneig is om die staat
as ietwat meer legitiem te beskou as die geYntegreerdes, dat hulle ekonomiese waardes
nie veralgemeen kan word as onsimpatiek tot mark-georienteerde beleidsopsies nie,
en dat die meerderheid (betekenisvol meer as die geYntegreerdes) die staat beskou as
die belangrikste verskaffer van sosiale dienste. Die gemarginaliseerdes is meer
verdraagsaam ten opsigte van outoritere politieke altematiewe, maar is nie
betekenisvol meer ontevrede (relatief gesproke) met die ekonomie as die ander groepe
me.
Ons kan dus nie Cox se aanname, dat die gemarginaliseerdes as 'n moontlike bron vir
verandering "van onder af' sal optree, onkrities aanvaar nie. Daarby beskou die
gemarginaliseerdes, in die lande wat deel was van die opname, steeds die staat as die
primere bron vir ontwikkelingshulp en sosiale dienste. Daar was egter beduidende
ondersteuning vir die bewering dat hulle meer geneig is tot politieke apatie en
politieke ondoeltreffendheid.
Die bestudering van Cox se benadering en die vergelyking daarvan met Ashley,
Linklater, Hoffman en Neufeld, toon aan dat die vier skrywers sekere beginsels met
CKT deel. Nietemin, kan hulle nie saam met Cox in 'n skool van kritiese denke
gevoeg word nie, omdat hulle intellektuele inspirasie uit Habermas en die Frankfurt
Skool van Kritiese Teorie geput word. Cox, daarenteen, is beYnvloed deur 'n
verskeidenheid denkers (bv. Braudel, Carr, Gramsci, Khaldun, Marx, Sorel, en Vico).
Hierdie onderskeid is belangrik en noodsaaklik omdat die empiriese resultate van die
opname data-analise, Cox se fokus op die wedersydse invloed tussen sosiale magte,
staatsvorme en wereldordes, ondersteun. Dit is dus meer korrek om CKT te beskou as
'n "krities-realistiese" teorie van Intemasionale Betrekkinge (bv. Richard Falk, 1997).
Die studie beveel aan dat, in 'n wereld wat gekenmerk word deur toenemende
ongelykheid en die voorkoms van die uitwaarts-georienteerde staat, openbare
beleidmakers die standaard DIGA (Daar is geen Altematief) antwoord, in reaksie op
diegene wat die "oopheid" beginsel kritiseer, in heroorweging moet neem. 'n Meer ewewigtige benadering tot die aanspreek van ongelykheid en armoede is noodsaaklik,
en dit vereis 'n uitwaartslbinnewaartse beleidsherorientering. Wat benodig word is 'n
staatsvorm wat geleenthede skep vir die ge'integreerdes maar wat ook die
gemarginaliseerdes help en beskerm. Selfs in 'n post-W estphaliaanse wereld waar
daar ander magsentra voorkom, bly hierdie noodsaaklike binnewaartse orientasie een
van die staat se primere verantwoordelikhede.
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