Background: The Missed Opportunities for Maternal and Infant Health (MOMI) project, which aimed at upgrading maternal and infant postpartum care (PPC), implemented a package of interventions including the integration of maternal PPC in infant immunization services in 12 health facilities in Kaya Health district in Burkina Faso from 2013 to 2015. This paper assesses the coverage and the quality of combined mother-infant PPC in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health services (RMNCH). Methods: We conducted a mixed methods study with cross-sectional surveys before and after the intervention in the Kaya health and demographic surveillance system. On the quantitative side, two household surveys were performed in 2012 ( N = 757) and in 2014 ( N = 754) among mothers within one year postpartum. The analysis examines the result of the intervention by the date of delivery at three key time points in the PPC schedule: the first 48 h, days 6 - 10 and during weeks 6 - 8 and beyond. On the qualitative side, in depth interviews, focus group discussions and observations were conducted in four health facilities in 2012 and 2015. They involved mothers in the postpartum period, facility and community health workers, and other stakeholders. We performed a descriptive analysis and a two-sample test of proportions of the quantitative data. The qualitative data were recorded, transcribed and analysed along the themes relevant for the intervention. Results: The findings show that the WHO guidelines, in terms of content and improvement of maternal PPC, were followed for physical examinations and consultations. They also show a significant increase in the coverage of maternal PPC services from 50% (372/752) before the intervention to 81% (544/672) one year after the start of the intervention. However, more women were assessed at days 6 - 10 than at later visits. Integration of maternal PPC was low, with little improvements in history taking and physical examination of mothers in immunization services. While health workers are polyvalent, difficulties in restructuring and organizing services hindered the integration. Conclusion: Unless a comprehensive strategy of integration within RMNCH services is implemented to address the primary health care challenges within the health system, integration will not yield the desired results.

Objectives Studies of the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios (δ13C and δ15N) of modern tissues with a fast turnover, such as hair and fingernails, have established the relationship between these values in mothers and their infants during breastfeeding and weaning. Using collagen from high-resolution dentine sections of teeth which form in the perinatal period we investigate the relationship between diet and physiology in this pivotal stage of life. Materials and Methods Childhood dentine collagen δ13C and δ15N profiles were produced from horizontal sections of permanent and deciduous teeth following the direction of development. These were from two 19th-century sites (n = 24) and a small number (n = 5) of prehistoric samples from Great Britain and Ireland. Results These high-resolution data exhibit marked differences between those who survived childhood and those who did not, the former varying little and the latter fluctuating widely. Discussion Breastfeeding and weaning behavior have a significant impact on the morbidity and mortality of infants and the adults they become. In the absence of documentary evidence, archaeological studies of bone collagen of adults and juveniles have been used to infer the prevalence and duration of breastfeeding. These interpretations rely on certain assumptions about the relationship between isotope ratios in the bone collagen of the adult females and the infants who have died. The data from this study suggest a more complex situation than previously proposed and the potential for a new approach to the study of maternal and infant health in past populations.

The food an infant is fed can reflect many things: a source of nutrition, the social and cultural circumstances into which an infant is born, or even a family’s beliefs about the body and breast milk as a source of nutrition. Exclusive breastfeeding, currently the gold standard for infant feeding in the United States (US), is often identified as an expectation in discourses on being a “good mother.” African American mothers in particular are the least likely group in the US to breastfeed in any capacity and many efforts are underway to increase the breastfeeding rates of this population. This dissertation presents findings of a three-part qualitative study whose purpose was to examine how African American mothers define being a good mother and to learn what factors they experience in early motherhood that may influence their decisions for infant feeding and infant care. Because most research in this area focuses on low income African American mothers, this research has a distinct focus on middle class African American mothers to allow for the consideration of factors besides low socioeconomic status that may contribute to breastfeeding behavior. By defining good motherhood in accordance with middle class African American mothers’ definition, this research argues against the standard that aligns “good motherhood” with breastfeeding and suggests instead that, in some instances, being a good mother means caring and providing for the family at the exclusion of breastfeeding. Included are suggestions for alternative strategies that extend beyond educating and encouraging African American mothers to conform to a standard that can appear to be in conflict with their primary values.

Introdução: Com o surgimento da epidemia da AIDS na década de 80, vários têm sido os desafios enfrentados pela sociedade, devido à rápida disseminação, em escala global. A epidemia acomete cerca de 34 milhões nos diversos continentes, e segundo a UNAIDS (2012), a maior parcela está em países em desenvolvimento. O continente africano, com mais de 800 milhões de habitantes, em 54 países, é o que mais tem sofrido os impactos da doença, apresentando a maior parcela de infectados pelo vírus HIV no mundo, com cerca de 23,5 milhões de infectados registrados. Assim como globalmente, a preocupação que tem suscitado debates é a crescente feminização dessa epidemia em Guiné-Bissau, aumentando as taxas de transmissão vertical do vírus HIV, que, segundo as últimas projeções do país (PEN III, 2012), o risco estimado foi de 8,9 por cento. O advento do antirretroviral (Zidovudina), em 1994, a partir da publicação do protocolo 076 da ACTG veio mudar o cenário da transmissão vertical. Em Guiné-Bissau, a chegada dos antirretrovirais, em 2006, constituiu uma nova fase na luta contra a disseminação do vírus, em particular, no âmbito da transmissão vertical, proporcionando melhor qualidade de vida e chances de uma criança nascer sem AIDS. A ONG Céu e Terras atua no país desde 2001, e, em julho de 2007, adotou o protocolo recomendado pela OMS: tríplice terapia e amamentação exclusiva, visando à redução da transmissão vertical. Objetivo - Analisar a atuação da ONG Associação Céu e Terras quanto à prevenção da transmissão vertical do vírus HIV no contexto da Guiné-Bissau, a partir da introdução do novo protocolo da tríplice terapia antirretroviral e amamentação exclusiva. Método - É um estudo descritivo de dados secundários de mães e de seus filhos, mães estas inscritas no programa da instituição (ONG) Associação Céu e Terras em Bissau, República da Guiné-Bissau, no período de julho de 2007 a junho de 2011. População estudada: 430 mulheres soropositivas e 417 crianças nascidas vivas dessas mães que participaram do programa de prevenção da transmissão vertical na ONG. Para analisar a ocorrência de transmissão vertical nessa população, foram considerados os fatores sociais, culturais, a aderência à terapia, o tipo de aleitamento praticado e via de parto. Para isso, foi usado o programa SPSS 18.0. Resultado - Entre 430 grávidas, houve 7 casos de óbito materno e 417 crianças nasceram vivas, e destas, 347 foram testadas no final do seguimento: 328 resultaram HIV negativas e 19 resultaram HIV positivas, ou seja, ocorreu a transmissão vertical. Das crianças que nasceram vivas, 11 delas morreram antes de completar 18 meses e 13 foram a óbito depois de 18 meses de vida. É importante relatar que ocorreram 13 casos de óbito fetal, excluídos do estudo, por não ter sido feito teste para diagnóstico de HIV/AIDS. Conclusões - No período estudado, a taxa de transmissão vertical foi de 4,6 por cento, Valor esse bem abaixo da estimada pelo governo do país. A análise feita para o período de estudo mostrou uma diminuição da transmissão vertical, sugerindo uma ligeira tendência de queda durante os semestres estudados, mas sem diferença significante entre eles. Observou-se, também, falha na adesão à terapia antirretroviral, sendo essa a principal causa da ocorrência na transmissão vertical; por outro lado, a via de parto e amamentação praticada são fortes aliados nessa ocorrência, sem esquecer-se das questões culturais e sociais, fortemente presentes na sociedade guineense e que influenciam na não efetivação do programa em reduzir a taxa de transmissão vertical e da disseminação do vírus HIV no país / Introduction: With the emergence of the AIDS epidemic in the decade of the eighties. Around the world, there are several challenges faced by society due to its rapid dissemination in global scale. The epidemic affects approximately 34 million people around the world, according to UNAIDS, the largest portion is observed in third world. The African continent with over 800 million inhabitants, which contains 54 countries, is what most has suffered the impact of the disease presenting the largest portion of HIV patients in the world, with about 23.5 million infected registered. As globally, the concern that has sparked debates is the increasing feminization of the virus in Guinea - Bissau, the country which consequently increased rates of vertical transmission of HIV, which according to recent projections, the risk is estimated at 8.9 percent (PEN III,2012). The advent of antiretroviral (zidovudine) in 1994, from the publication of 076 protocol of the ACTG come to change the scenario of vertical transmission. In Guinea-Bissau, the arrival of antiretrovirals in 2006, marked a new phase in the fight against the spread of the vírus particularly in the context of vertical transmission, providing more life quality and chances of a child born without AIDS. The NGO Associação Céu e Terras acts in the country since 2001, and in 2007 adopted the protocol recommended by WHO with triple therapy and exclusive breastfeeding, in order to reduce vertical transmission in the country. Objective - Analyze the performance of the NGO Associação Céu e Terras as the prevention of vertical HIV transmission in the context of Guinea-Bissau. Examine the proposal from the introduction of the new protocol of triple antiretroviral therapy, exclusive breastfeeding, 2007 2011. Method - It is a descriptive study of secondary data from mothers and their children whose women enrolled in the period July 2007 to June 2011 the institution (NGO) Associação Céu e Terras in Bissau, Republic of Guinea-Bissau program. The population studied was composed of 430 HIV-positive women and 417 children born of those mothers who participated in the program to prevent vertical transmission in NGOs. To analyze the occurrence of vertical transmission in this population were analyzed mainly the social, cultural, the adherence to therapy, the type of breastfeeding practiced and route of delivery. For data analysis, we used the SPSS 18.0 program. Result - among 430 pregnant there were 7 cases of maternal deaths and 417 children were born alive, among these, 347 children were tested at final follow up, 328 resulted HIV negative and 19 HIV positive, meaning, the transmission vertical occurred. Of the live births, 11 of them died before reaching 18 months and 13 have died after 18 months of life. It is important to report that 13 cases of fetal death. Conclusions - Among this population during that period, the rate of vertical transmission was 4.6 percent. Amount which well below the estimated by the government. The analysis made for the study period showed a decrease in vertical transmission, have suggested a slight decreasing trend during the semesters studied, but no difference between them. It was also observed failure in adherence to antiretroviral therapy being the main cause of this occurrence in the transmission, on the other hand, the mode of delivery and breastfeeding practiced are strong allies in this occurrence, without forgetting the cultural and social issues strongly present in Guinean society that influence the effectiveness of the program in not further reduce the rate of vertical transmission and spread of HIV in the country

Introdução: Com o surgimento da epidemia da AIDS na década de 80, vários têm sido os desafios enfrentados pela sociedade, devido à rápida disseminação, em escala global. A epidemia acomete cerca de 34 milhões nos diversos continentes, e segundo a UNAIDS (2012), a maior parcela está em países em desenvolvimento. O continente africano, com mais de 800 milhões de habitantes, em 54 países, é o que mais tem sofrido os impactos da doença, apresentando a maior parcela de infectados pelo vírus HIV no mundo, com cerca de 23,5 milhões de infectados registrados. Assim como globalmente, a preocupação que tem suscitado debates é a crescente feminização dessa epidemia em Guiné-Bissau, aumentando as taxas de transmissão vertical do vírus HIV, que, segundo as últimas projeções do país (PEN III, 2012), o risco estimado foi de 8,9 por cento. O advento do antirretroviral (Zidovudina), em 1994, a partir da publicação do protocolo 076 da ACTG veio mudar o cenário da transmissão vertical. Em Guiné-Bissau, a chegada dos antirretrovirais, em 2006, constituiu uma nova fase na luta contra a disseminação do vírus, em particular, no âmbito da transmissão vertical, proporcionando melhor qualidade de vida e chances de uma criança nascer sem AIDS. A ONG Céu e Terras atua no país desde 2001, e, em julho de 2007, adotou o protocolo recomendado pela OMS: tríplice terapia e amamentação exclusiva, visando à redução da transmissão vertical. Objetivo - Analisar a atuação da ONG Associação Céu e Terras quanto à prevenção da transmissão vertical do vírus HIV no contexto da Guiné-Bissau, a partir da introdução do novo protocolo da tríplice terapia antirretroviral e amamentação exclusiva. Método - É um estudo descritivo de dados secundários de mães e de seus filhos, mães estas inscritas no programa da instituição (ONG) Associação Céu e Terras em Bissau, República da Guiné-Bissau, no período de julho de 2007 a junho de 2011. População estudada: 430 mulheres soropositivas e 417 crianças nascidas vivas dessas mães que participaram do programa de prevenção da transmissão vertical na ONG. Para analisar a ocorrência de transmissão vertical nessa população, foram considerados os fatores sociais, culturais, a aderência à terapia, o tipo de aleitamento praticado e via de parto. Para isso, foi usado o programa SPSS 18.0. Resultado - Entre 430 grávidas, houve 7 casos de óbito materno e 417 crianças nasceram vivas, e destas, 347 foram testadas no final do seguimento: 328 resultaram HIV negativas e 19 resultaram HIV positivas, ou seja, ocorreu a transmissão vertical. Das crianças que nasceram vivas, 11 delas morreram antes de completar 18 meses e 13 foram a óbito depois de 18 meses de vida. É importante relatar que ocorreram 13 casos de óbito fetal, excluídos do estudo, por não ter sido feito teste para diagnóstico de HIV/AIDS. Conclusões - No período estudado, a taxa de transmissão vertical foi de 4,6 por cento, Valor esse bem abaixo da estimada pelo governo do país. A análise feita para o período de estudo mostrou uma diminuição da transmissão vertical, sugerindo uma ligeira tendência de queda durante os semestres estudados, mas sem diferença significante entre eles. Observou-se, também, falha na adesão à terapia antirretroviral, sendo essa a principal causa da ocorrência na transmissão vertical; por outro lado, a via de parto e amamentação praticada são fortes aliados nessa ocorrência, sem esquecer-se das questões culturais e sociais, fortemente presentes na sociedade guineense e que influenciam na não efetivação do programa em reduzir a taxa de transmissão vertical e da disseminação do vírus HIV no país / Introduction: With the emergence of the AIDS epidemic in the decade of the eighties. Around the world, there are several challenges faced by society due to its rapid dissemination in global scale. The epidemic affects approximately 34 million people around the world, according to UNAIDS, the largest portion is observed in third world. The African continent with over 800 million inhabitants, which contains 54 countries, is what most has suffered the impact of the disease presenting the largest portion of HIV patients in the world, with about 23.5 million infected registered. As globally, the concern that has sparked debates is the increasing feminization of the virus in Guinea - Bissau, the country which consequently increased rates of vertical transmission of HIV, which according to recent projections, the risk is estimated at 8.9 percent (PEN III,2012). The advent of antiretroviral (zidovudine) in 1994, from the publication of 076 protocol of the ACTG come to change the scenario of vertical transmission. In Guinea-Bissau, the arrival of antiretrovirals in 2006, marked a new phase in the fight against the spread of the vírus particularly in the context of vertical transmission, providing more life quality and chances of a child born without AIDS. The NGO Associação Céu e Terras acts in the country since 2001, and in 2007 adopted the protocol recommended by WHO with triple therapy and exclusive breastfeeding, in order to reduce vertical transmission in the country. Objective - Analyze the performance of the NGO Associação Céu e Terras as the prevention of vertical HIV transmission in the context of Guinea-Bissau. Examine the proposal from the introduction of the new protocol of triple antiretroviral therapy, exclusive breastfeeding, 2007 2011. Method - It is a descriptive study of secondary data from mothers and their children whose women enrolled in the period July 2007 to June 2011 the institution (NGO) Associação Céu e Terras in Bissau, Republic of Guinea-Bissau program. The population studied was composed of 430 HIV-positive women and 417 children born of those mothers who participated in the program to prevent vertical transmission in NGOs. To analyze the occurrence of vertical transmission in this population were analyzed mainly the social, cultural, the adherence to therapy, the type of breastfeeding practiced and route of delivery. For data analysis, we used the SPSS 18.0 program. Result - among 430 pregnant there were 7 cases of maternal deaths and 417 children were born alive, among these, 347 children were tested at final follow up, 328 resulted HIV negative and 19 HIV positive, meaning, the transmission vertical occurred. Of the live births, 11 of them died before reaching 18 months and 13 have died after 18 months of life. It is important to report that 13 cases of fetal death. Conclusions - Among this population during that period, the rate of vertical transmission was 4.6 percent. Amount which well below the estimated by the government. The analysis made for the study period showed a decrease in vertical transmission, have suggested a slight decreasing trend during the semesters studied, but no difference between them. It was also observed failure in adherence to antiretroviral therapy being the main cause of this occurrence in the transmission, on the other hand, the mode of delivery and breastfeeding practiced are strong allies in this occurrence, without forgetting the cultural and social issues strongly present in Guinean society that influence the effectiveness of the program in not further reduce the rate of vertical transmission and spread of HIV in the country

Introduction Chaque année, 289 000 femmes décèdent des complications reliées à la grossesse et à l’accouchement, et 2.9 millions de nouveau-nés décèdent avant d’atteindre 28 jours de vie. La quasi-totalité (99%) des décès maternels et néonataux ont cours dans les pays à revenu faible et intermédiaire (PRFI). L’utilisation des services obstétricaux essentiels, incluant l’assistance qualifiée à l’accouchement (AA) et les services postnataux, contribue largement à la réduction de la morbidité et de la mortalité maternelle et néonatale. Il est donc essentiel d’évaluer les déterminants et les inégalités de couverture de ces services, en vue d’informer l’élaboration de politiques et de programmes de santé dans les PRFI. Objectifs 1. Étudier systématiquement les déterminants et inégalités socioéconomiques, géographiques et démographiques dans l’utilisation des services de santé postnataux dans les PRFI. 2. Évaluer l’effet de la politique de subvention des frais aux usagers introduite au Burkina Faso en 2007 sur les taux d’utilisation de l’assistance qualifiée à l’accouchement, en fonction du statut socioéconomique (SSE). Méthodes 1. Nous avons réalisé une revue systématique sur l’utilisation des services postnataux dans les PRFI, en fonction des déterminants socioéconomiques, géographiques et démographiques. Notre étude incluait une méta-analyse de l’utilisation des services selon les quintiles de SSE et le milieu de vie (urbain vs. rural). 2. Nous avons utilisé un devis quasi-expérimental. Les sources de données consistaient en deux sondages représentatifs (n=1408 et n=1403), conduits respectivement en 2008 et 2010 auprès de femmes des districts sanitaires de Houndé et de Ziniaré au Burkina Faso, en plus d’une enquête sur la qualité structurelle des soins offerts dans les centres de santé primaire. Nous avons utilisé des modèles de régression de Poisson, multi-niveaux et segmentés, afin d’évaluer l’effet de la politique de subvention sur les taux d’AA. Nous avons estimé des ratios et différences de taux d’incidence ajustés, en fonction du SSE et du temps écoulé depuis l’introduction de la subvention. Résultats 1. Les estimés de ratio de cotes (RC) agrégés (IC 95%) pour les femmes de SSE élevé (5e quintile ou Q5), Q4, Q3 et Q2 (référence : quintile le plus pauvre, Q1) étaient respectivement : 2.27 (1.75 – 2.93); 1.60 (1.30-1.98); 1.32 (1.12-1.55); et 1.14 (0.96-1.34). La méta-analyse a aussi démontré un gradient d’utilisation des services postnataux entre les femmes urbaines et rurales : RC (IC 95%) = 1.36 (1.01-1.81). L’évaluation narrative a par ailleurs identifié une différence dans la couverture de services selon le niveau d’éducation. 2. Pour les femmes de faible SSE, le taux d’AA était 24% plus élevé (IC 95% : 4-46%) immédiatement après l’introduction de la subvention, en comparaison au taux attendu en l’absence de ladite subvention. L’ampleur de l’effet a diminué dans le temps, correspondant à des estimés (IC 95%) de 22% (3-45%) à 6 mois, 20% (1-43%) à 12 mois, et 17% (-4-42%) à 24 mois après l’introduction de la subvention. La force d’association variait selon les strates de SSE, l’effet le plus prononcé étant observé au sein du SSE le plus faible. Conclusions 1. L’utilisation des services postnataux demeure inéquitable selon le SSE et l’accessibilité géographique aux formations sanitaires dans les PRFI. 2. Notre étude suggère que l’introduction de la subvention des frais aux usagers au Burkina Faso résulte en une augmentation soutenue dans le taux d’assistance qualifiée à l’accouchement, particulièrement chez les femmes de faible SSE. Cette évidence scientifique devrait alimenter l’élaboration de programmes de santé materno-infantile, en plus de guider la planification de politiques et le renforcement des systèmes de santé des PRFI. / Background Each year, 289 000 women die from complications related to pregnancy, childbirth or the postnatal period, and 2.9 million newborns decease before reaching 28 days of life. The near totality (99%) of maternal and neonatal deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Utilization of essential obstetric care services including skilled birth attendance (SBA) and postnatal care (PNC) largely contributes to the reduction of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. There is a strong need to assess the determinants and inequalities in coverage of SBA and PNC services, to inform health policy planning. Objectives 1. Systematically assess the socioeconomic, geographic and demographic inequalities in PNC services utilization in LMICs. 2. Evaluate the effect of Burkina Faso’s 2007 user-fee subsidy policy on SBA rate across socioeconomic status (SES) strata. Methods 1. We conducted a systematic review of the association between PNC services utilization and key determinants, including a meta-analysis of PNC use across socioeconomic status quintiles, and place of residence (urban vs. rural). 2. We used a quasi-experimental design. The data sources were two representative surveys (n=1408 and n=1403) carried out in 2008 and 2010, respectively, of women from Houndé and Ziniaré health districts of Burkina Faso, and a survey of health centres assessing structural quality of care. Multilevel segmented Poisson regression models were used to assess the effect of subsidy on SBA rate. We estimated adjusted rate ratios and rate differences as a function of time and socioeconomic status level. Results 1. The pooled odds ratio (OR) (95% CI) estimates for highest SES women (quintile 5, Q5), Q4, Q3 and Q2 (reference: poorest quintile, Q1) were respectively: 2.27 (1.75 – 2.93); 1.60 (1.30-1.98); 1.32 (1.12-1.55); and 1.14 (0.96-1.34). Meta-analysis also showed a PNC utilization divide between urban and rural women: OR (95% CI) = 1.36 (1.01-1.81). Narrative assessment of studies identified a gradient in PNC coverage across education levels. 2. For low-SES women, immediately upon the introduction of the subsidy policy, the rate of SBA was 24% higher (95% CI: 4-46%) than expected in the absence of subsidy policy introduction. The magnitude of the apparent effect decreased over time, with the corresponding estimates (95% CI) being 22% (3-45%) at 6 months, 20% (1-43%) at 12 months, and 17% (-4-42%) at 24 months after the policy introduction. Furthermore, the magnitude of the association varied across SES strata, with the apparent effect being most pronounced in the low SES stratum. Conclusions 1. PNC utilization remains inequitable across socioeconomic status and geographic access to health facilities in LMICs. 2. Our study suggests that introduction of user fee subsidy in Burkina Faso resulted in sustained increase in the rate of SBA, especially among low-SES women. This evidence should inform maternal and child health programmes and guide health policies and health care systems in LMICs.

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