Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biology / Theodore J. Morgan / Natural populations are highly complex and consist of genetically variable individuals that belong to continuously varying age classes. Genotype and age interact to determine how individuals respond to environmental stress, which ultimately determines the evolutionary trajectories and persistence of populations in variable environments. For small ectothermic species, seasonal and diurnal variation in temperature is an important source of environmental stress that impacts activity patterns and suites of phenotypes directly related to whole organism fitness. I used the genetic and ecological model Drosophila melanogaster to investigate the influence of seasonal and diurnal thermal variability on survival and reproduction in genetically diverse populations. First, I characterized changes in cold tolerance and phenotypic plasticity within a natural population as it responded to seasonal shifts in developmental and short-term acclimation and thermal selection. I found that seasonal variation in cold tolerance was significantly influenced by developmental acclimation that occurred in the field as well as in the lab, where flies that developed under warmer conditions had reduced cold tolerance relative to flies that developed under cooler conditions. Second, I characterized the effect of variation in age on stress response phenotypes in a genetically variable population. I measured genotype- and age-specific responses to multiple environmental stressors, and identified regions of the genome that were associated with age-specific stress tolerance. Genome-wide association mapping revealed that age-specific phenotypes were influenced by distinct sets of polymorphisms and genes, suggesting that the evolution of age-related decline in phenotypes is driven by mutation accumulation within phenotypes, but both mutation accumulation and antagonistic pleiotropy between phenotypes. Next, I characterized the costs and benefits of acclimation for survival and reproduction to understand how physiological and behavioral plasticity interact to determine fitness. I found that phenotypic plasticity and the capacity for acclimation significantly influenced behavioral reproductive success, but the thermal cues that led to adaptive acclimation response in survival also led to decreased reproductive success. However, genotypes with the capacity to acclimate were more likely to survive thermal variation and more likely to reproduce, suggesting that genetic capacity for phenotypic plasticity has important implications for whole organism fitness. Finally, I measured the effect of acclimation on the induction of diapause and ability to survive cold stress in the recently introduced invasive species Drosophila suzukii. D. suzukii is endemic to Asia and was first detected in California in 2008 and in Topeka, KS in 2013. Its recent invasion history thus provides an interesting model to understand the role of plasiticy in the response to a novel and variable environment. I found that diapause was induced through a plastic response to acclimation and short photoperiod, though diapause was more drastically induced by acclimation. Overall, my research provides critical insights into how organisms respond to thermal variation by intergrating quantitative genetics, ecology, evolution, and life history tradeoffs. Collectively, my research demonstrates that the ability of organisms to survive thermal stress is a function of genetic capacity to tolerate stress, genetic capacity for phenotypic plasticity, prior exposure to thermal variation, and the age of the individual.

No description available.

O processo reprodutivo é de extrema importância para os organismos vivos, é através dele que os indivíduos transmitem as informações contidas em seus genes para as próximas gerações. Para que qualquer indivíduo seja bem-sucedido nesse processo, o primeiro desafio a ser superado é encontrar um parceiro sexual. Para cumprir essa tarefa, machos e fêmeas comunicam sua presença utilizando uma variedade de canais sensoriais. Nas abelhas sociais,o encontro entre machos e fêmeas é um processo complexo e resultado de um refinado sistema de comunicação, mediado principalmente por sinais químicos. Embora Meliponini seja o maior e mais diverso grupo de abelhas sociais, existem poucas informações sobre a comunicação sexual desses insetos. Um fenômeno comum nesse grupo de abelhas é a formação de grandes agregados de machos nas proximidades de colônias que possuem uma rainha virgem. No entanto, os sinais envolvidos na atração dos machos e na formação desses agregados são pouco conhecidos. Desse modo, este trabalho objetivou investigar os fatores envolvidos na comunicação sexual de Meliponini. Para explorar esse problema, nós realizamos uma revisão sobre a biologia reprodutiva dessas abelhas (cap. 1), testamos o papel das forrageiras na atração de machos (cap.2), identificamos os compostos presentes nas marcas depositadas por machos nas agregações (cap.3) e investigamos os fatores relacionados à escolha dos machos por uma determinada colônia (cap. 4). Os resultados obtidos apontam que as forrageiras têm um papel central na atração dos machos e que os machos depositam ativamente seus hidrocarbonetos cuticulares nos locais de agregação. Além disso, foi possível identificar que a atratividade de uma colônia está relacionada com a sua biomassa. Assim, esses resultados contribuem para ampliar nosso conhecimento sobre o processo reprodutivo em abelhas sem ferrão e mostram que a comunicação sexual desse grupo de insetos é um processo tão complexo quanto fascinante que envolve machos, rainhas e operárias / Reproduction is the utmost important process for living organisms since it is through this process that individuals can transmit their genetic information to the next generation. To be successful in this process, the first challenge individuals need to overcome is finding a sexual partner. To accomplish this task, males and females communicate their presence using several sensorial modalities. In highly eusocial bees, this complex process is the outcome of a precise chemical communication system. Stingless bees (Meliponini) represents the most species-rich group of eusocial bees and although a lot of information related to the group can be found in the literature, very little is known about their mating communication. A common phenomenon in this group of social bees is the formation of large male aggregations in front of nests during reproductive events. However, the factors involved in the formation of such male aggregation are poorly understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the mating communication of stingless bees. To explore this problem, we reviewed the mating biology of the bees (chapter 1), tested the role of foragers in the attraction of males (chapter 2), identified the compounds that drones deposit at the aggregation site (chapter 3) and investigated the factors related to the differential attraction of males to colonies (chapter 4). Our results suggest that foragers have a central role in the long-range attraction of males and that males actively deposit their cuticular hydrocarbons at the aggregation site. Furthermore, we observed that the number of attracted males increased with the weight of colonies, showing that the attractiveness of colonies is related to their biomass. Thus, these results contribute to improve our knowledge about the reproductive process of stingless bees and show that the sexual communication of these bees is as complex as fascinating and involves males, queens and workers

Wild Canis species possess a unique suite of reproductive traits including social monogamy, copulatory lock/tie, and biparental care. Females are seasonally monestrous and experience an obligatory pseudopregnancy after spontaneous ovulation. While these characteristics have been ascribed to coyotes, an integrated profile of behavior and physiology has not yet been described. In this study, temporal correlations between steroid hormone levels and socio-sexual mating behaviors were documented, as were changes in vaginal epithelium. Pseudopregnancy was compared to pregnancy by contrasting hormone (progesterone, estradiol, prolactin and relaxin) profiles of unmated females to patterns obtained in alternate years when they bred. Meanwhile, social interactions between pseudopregnant females and their mates appeared similar to pregnant coyotes, suggesting a proximate role of pseudopregnancy in pair-bond enforcement. Finally, out-of-season stimulation of ovarian hormones and estrous behaviors suggested that reproductive seasonality of the coyote may possess some degree of plasticity, providing an adaptive response mechanism to environmental change.

Sexual selection is responsible for a great diversity of elaborate male traits. A general female preference for males that have exaggerated traits drives this process, but the reasons females exhibit this preference are often unclear. Recent advances in understanding signal evolution have emerged from studies of receiver psychology that focus on how receivers perceive and process communication signals. I apply the perspective of receiver psychology to understand female preference for elaborate signals in túngara frogs (Physalaemus pustulosus). Male túngara frogs produce advertisement calls of variable complexity. Females exhibit a strong preference for complex to simple calls, but previous studies have not found consistent patterns of preference between calls of variable complexity. In my doctoral research, I investigate the function of variable complexity in túngara frogs. Specifically, I address the following questions: 1) Are calls of variable complexity especially relevant to females in certain contexts? Do males respond to female behavior by increasing their production of complex calls? 2) Does male to female proximity influence female response to call complexity? 3) Are females constrained by their perceptual biology in discriminating differences in call complexity? 4) Can females remember attractive males over silences between bouts of advertising? Is working memory for attractive males dependent upon signal complexity? And 5) Does signal memorability increase with signal complexity in a linear relationship? These studies provide several new perspectives to an understanding of female preference for elaborate signals. Phonotaxis experiments demonstrate that females use elicitation behaviors to influence male production of complex calls, that proximity influences female response to signal elaboration, that females are constrained by their perceptual biology in discriminating between complex calls, that memory can influence the evolution of signal complexity, and that memorability and signal complexity share a non-linear relationship. / text

O processo reprodutivo é de extrema importância para os organismos vivos, é através dele que os indivíduos transmitem as informações contidas em seus genes para as próximas gerações. Para que qualquer indivíduo seja bem-sucedido nesse processo, o primeiro desafio a ser superado é encontrar um parceiro sexual. Para cumprir essa tarefa, machos e fêmeas comunicam sua presença utilizando uma variedade de canais sensoriais. Nas abelhas sociais,o encontro entre machos e fêmeas é um processo complexo e resultado de um refinado sistema de comunicação, mediado principalmente por sinais químicos. Embora Meliponini seja o maior e mais diverso grupo de abelhas sociais, existem poucas informações sobre a comunicação sexual desses insetos. Um fenômeno comum nesse grupo de abelhas é a formação de grandes agregados de machos nas proximidades de colônias que possuem uma rainha virgem. No entanto, os sinais envolvidos na atração dos machos e na formação desses agregados são pouco conhecidos. Desse modo, este trabalho objetivou investigar os fatores envolvidos na comunicação sexual de Meliponini. Para explorar esse problema, nós realizamos uma revisão sobre a biologia reprodutiva dessas abelhas (cap. 1), testamos o papel das forrageiras na atração de machos (cap.2), identificamos os compostos presentes nas marcas depositadas por machos nas agregações (cap.3) e investigamos os fatores relacionados à escolha dos machos por uma determinada colônia (cap. 4). Os resultados obtidos apontam que as forrageiras têm um papel central na atração dos machos e que os machos depositam ativamente seus hidrocarbonetos cuticulares nos locais de agregação. Além disso, foi possível identificar que a atratividade de uma colônia está relacionada com a sua biomassa. Assim, esses resultados contribuem para ampliar nosso conhecimento sobre o processo reprodutivo em abelhas sem ferrão e mostram que a comunicação sexual desse grupo de insetos é um processo tão complexo quanto fascinante que envolve machos, rainhas e operárias / Reproduction is the utmost important process for living organisms since it is through this process that individuals can transmit their genetic information to the next generation. To be successful in this process, the first challenge individuals need to overcome is finding a sexual partner. To accomplish this task, males and females communicate their presence using several sensorial modalities. In highly eusocial bees, this complex process is the outcome of a precise chemical communication system. Stingless bees (Meliponini) represents the most species-rich group of eusocial bees and although a lot of information related to the group can be found in the literature, very little is known about their mating communication. A common phenomenon in this group of social bees is the formation of large male aggregations in front of nests during reproductive events. However, the factors involved in the formation of such male aggregation are poorly understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the mating communication of stingless bees. To explore this problem, we reviewed the mating biology of the bees (chapter 1), tested the role of foragers in the attraction of males (chapter 2), identified the compounds that drones deposit at the aggregation site (chapter 3) and investigated the factors related to the differential attraction of males to colonies (chapter 4). Our results suggest that foragers have a central role in the long-range attraction of males and that males actively deposit their cuticular hydrocarbons at the aggregation site. Furthermore, we observed that the number of attracted males increased with the weight of colonies, showing that the attractiveness of colonies is related to their biomass. Thus, these results contribute to improve our knowledge about the reproductive process of stingless bees and show that the sexual communication of these bees is as complex as fascinating and involves males, queens and workers

Tempestades acompanhadas por diferentes combinações de ventos, chuvas, variações bruscas de temperatura e de radiação solar são manifestações climáticas frequentemente associadas com queda na pressão atmosférica. Para os insetos, especialmente os pequenos insetos, estas condições de mau tempo são desfavoráveis e podem acarretar alta mortalidade na sua população. Neste trabalho foi demonstrado que as mudanças na pressão atmosférica influenciaram várias atividades do comportamento sexual nos insetos em ao menos três ordens, representados por Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) e Diabrotica speciosa (Germar) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Os parâmetros comportamentais observados foram: (i) Resposta de atração do macho ao feromônio sexual (para D. speciosa); (ii) comportamento de chamamento das fêmeas (para P. unipuncta e M. euphorbiae); e (iii) comportamento de cópula (para D. speciosa, P. unipuncta e M. euphorbiae). Estes parâmetros, por sua vez, foram analisados sob diferentes condições de pressão atmosférica no Brasil (Bra) e Canadá (Can). Levando-se em conta dados históricos nestes locais, foi definido como condições estáveis de pressão atmosférica variações de ±1,5mbar (Bra) e ±1,0mbar (Can); aumento de pressão variando de +2,0mbar (Bra) e +4,0mbar (Can); e queda de pressão variando de -2,0mbar (Bra) e -4,0mbar (Can), ao longo das seis horas anteriores a cada bioensaio. Os machos de D. speciosa responderam ativamente ao feromônio sexual em condições estáveis e de aumento da pressão atmosférica, porém permanecerem imóveis em condições de queda da pressão atmosférica. As fêmeas de P. unipuncta realizaram comportamento de chamamento sob condições estáveis e aumento da pressão atmosférica, reduzindo sensivelmente este comportamento quando houve queda da pressão atmosférica. As fêmeas de M. euphorbiae apresentaram comportamento de chamamento apenas em condições estáveis de pressão atmosférica, e permaneceram em repouso sob aumento e queda da pressão atmosférica. O comportamento de cópula em P. unipuncta e M. euphorbiae foi realizado preferencialmente sob condições estáveis de pressão atmosférica, e intensamente reduzidos em condições de queda e aumento de pressão atmosférica. Em D. speciosa, apesar dos casais terem realizado a cópula, independentemente das variações observadas de pressão atmosférica, o tempo investido e as sequências comportamentais durante essas cópulas foram encurtadas nas condições de queda da pressão atmosférica. Os resultados aqui apresentados demonstraram que o comportamento sexual dos insetos foi influenciado pelas variações da pressão atmosférica, e aparentemente, a percepção antecipada dessas variações teria um valor adaptativo importante, selecionando os indivíduos mais aptos, permitindo assim sua sobrevivência em razão das mudanças bruscas nas condições atmosféricas. / Storms accompanied by different combinations of wind, rain, sudden changes in temperature and solar radiation are climatic events often associated with decreasing atmospheric pressure. For insects, especially small insects, these weather conditions are unfavorable and can cause high mortality in a population. This study showed that changes in atmospheric pressure affected various activities of the sexual behavior in insects of at least three orders, represented by Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and Diabrotica speciosa (Germar) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). The behavior parameters observed were: (i) male response to sex pheromone (for D. speciosa), (ii) calling behavior of females (for P. unipuncta and M. euphorbiae) and mating behavior (for D. speciosa, P. unipuncta and M. euphorbiae). These parameters were analyzed under different atmospheric pressure conditions in Brazil (Bra) and Canada (Can). According to historic data in these locations, the variations in atmospheric pressure were determined as stable when varying ±1,5mbar (Bra) and ±1,0mbar (Can); increasing when varying +2,0mbar (Bra) and +4,0mbar (Can) and decreasing when varying -2,0mbar (Bra) and -4,0mbar (Can), throughout six hours preceding each bioassay. D. speciosa males responded to the sex pheromone in stable and increasing atmospheric pressures, but remained still in decreasing atmospheric pressure. P. unipuncta females called under stable and increasing atmospheric pressures, and reduced its behavior considerably when there was a decrease in atmospheric pressure. M. euphorbiae females called only under stable atmospheric pressure, and remained still under increasing and decreasing atmospheric pressures. The mating behavior in P. unipuncta and M. euphorbiae occurred preferably under stable conditions, and was reduced in increasing and decreasing atmospheric pressures. D. speciosa, despite mating under variations in atmospheric pressure, invested less time and shortened the behavioral sequences under decreasing pressure. The results presented here demonstrated that the sexual behavior of insects was influenced by variations in atmospheric pressure and, apparently, the early perception of these changes may add an important adaptive value to them, since it selects those who respond to these conditions, allowing their survival under changes in climatic conditions.

Tempestades acompanhadas por diferentes combinações de ventos, chuvas, variações bruscas de temperatura e de radiação solar são manifestações climáticas frequentemente associadas com queda na pressão atmosférica. Para os insetos, especialmente os pequenos insetos, estas condições de mau tempo são desfavoráveis e podem acarretar alta mortalidade na sua população. Neste trabalho foi demonstrado que as mudanças na pressão atmosférica influenciaram várias atividades do comportamento sexual nos insetos em ao menos três ordens, representados por Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) e Diabrotica speciosa (Germar) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Os parâmetros comportamentais observados foram: (i) Resposta de atração do macho ao feromônio sexual (para D. speciosa); (ii) comportamento de chamamento das fêmeas (para P. unipuncta e M. euphorbiae); e (iii) comportamento de cópula (para D. speciosa, P. unipuncta e M. euphorbiae). Estes parâmetros, por sua vez, foram analisados sob diferentes condições de pressão atmosférica no Brasil (Bra) e Canadá (Can). Levando-se em conta dados históricos nestes locais, foi definido como condições estáveis de pressão atmosférica variações de ±1,5mbar (Bra) e ±1,0mbar (Can); aumento de pressão variando de +2,0mbar (Bra) e +4,0mbar (Can); e queda de pressão variando de -2,0mbar (Bra) e -4,0mbar (Can), ao longo das seis horas anteriores a cada bioensaio. Os machos de D. speciosa responderam ativamente ao feromônio sexual em condições estáveis e de aumento da pressão atmosférica, porém permanecerem imóveis em condições de queda da pressão atmosférica. As fêmeas de P. unipuncta realizaram comportamento de chamamento sob condições estáveis e aumento da pressão atmosférica, reduzindo sensivelmente este comportamento quando houve queda da pressão atmosférica. As fêmeas de M. euphorbiae apresentaram comportamento de chamamento apenas em condições estáveis de pressão atmosférica, e permaneceram em repouso sob aumento e queda da pressão atmosférica. O comportamento de cópula em P. unipuncta e M. euphorbiae foi realizado preferencialmente sob condições estáveis de pressão atmosférica, e intensamente reduzidos em condições de queda e aumento de pressão atmosférica. Em D. speciosa, apesar dos casais terem realizado a cópula, independentemente das variações observadas de pressão atmosférica, o tempo investido e as sequências comportamentais durante essas cópulas foram encurtadas nas condições de queda da pressão atmosférica. Os resultados aqui apresentados demonstraram que o comportamento sexual dos insetos foi influenciado pelas variações da pressão atmosférica, e aparentemente, a percepção antecipada dessas variações teria um valor adaptativo importante, selecionando os indivíduos mais aptos, permitindo assim sua sobrevivência em razão das mudanças bruscas nas condições atmosféricas. / Storms accompanied by different combinations of wind, rain, sudden changes in temperature and solar radiation are climatic events often associated with decreasing atmospheric pressure. For insects, especially small insects, these weather conditions are unfavorable and can cause high mortality in a population. This study showed that changes in atmospheric pressure affected various activities of the sexual behavior in insects of at least three orders, represented by Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and Diabrotica speciosa (Germar) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). The behavior parameters observed were: (i) male response to sex pheromone (for D. speciosa), (ii) calling behavior of females (for P. unipuncta and M. euphorbiae) and mating behavior (for D. speciosa, P. unipuncta and M. euphorbiae). These parameters were analyzed under different atmospheric pressure conditions in Brazil (Bra) and Canada (Can). According to historic data in these locations, the variations in atmospheric pressure were determined as stable when varying ±1,5mbar (Bra) and ±1,0mbar (Can); increasing when varying +2,0mbar (Bra) and +4,0mbar (Can) and decreasing when varying -2,0mbar (Bra) and -4,0mbar (Can), throughout six hours preceding each bioassay. D. speciosa males responded to the sex pheromone in stable and increasing atmospheric pressures, but remained still in decreasing atmospheric pressure. P. unipuncta females called under stable and increasing atmospheric pressures, and reduced its behavior considerably when there was a decrease in atmospheric pressure. M. euphorbiae females called only under stable atmospheric pressure, and remained still under increasing and decreasing atmospheric pressures. The mating behavior in P. unipuncta and M. euphorbiae occurred preferably under stable conditions, and was reduced in increasing and decreasing atmospheric pressures. D. speciosa, despite mating under variations in atmospheric pressure, invested less time and shortened the behavioral sequences under decreasing pressure. The results presented here demonstrated that the sexual behavior of insects was influenced by variations in atmospheric pressure and, apparently, the early perception of these changes may add an important adaptive value to them, since it selects those who respond to these conditions, allowing their survival under changes in climatic conditions.

Among the different sensory modalities that play a role in sexual selection, acoustic communication plays an important one. Acoustic communication has been known to be used for male-male competition (territory maintenance, male aggression during mating),for advertisement to the opposite sex (mating status, body condition, genetic quality, nutritional status) and used by females to sample and choose conspecific preferred males. The use of acoustic communication for sexual display and information exchange has been extensively studied in multiple taxa, including insects, anurans, birds and mammals. Among insects, crickets have proven to be good model systems to study sexual selection based on acoustic communication as most species have an elaborate acoustic communication system, male advertisements, diverse types of mating incentives for females (such as glandular feeding) and a female dominated mating system. Generally, in crickets males produce species-specific calls which are used by females to localize conspecific males. Besides, calls show high levels of intraspecific variation and are energetically costly to produce. Moreover, as in crickets predominantly the females show phonotaxis towards male calls, calls also can play a role in mate sampling and choice by acting as indicators of preferred male quality. Despite being studied for many decades there are certain gaps in the studies examining mate choice in crickets. Some of them are, lack of understanding of the variation of male calling traits in nature and its role in signal evolution, lack of understanding regarding the ecological context of mate sampling and the evolution of alternative mating strategies. Hence, the tree cricket Oecanthus henryi was chosen as a study system to address these gaps in the understanding of female choice based on acoustic signals. In the tree cricket Oecanthus henryi, males call and females use calls to localize conspecific males and hence potentially females can choose males based on acoustic cues. To understand the evolution of female preference for male acoustic cues it is important to understand the variation in the calling songs in the field and identify repeatable call features that are reliable indicators of preferred male traits (morphological, developmental or genetic). I measured repeatability of male call traits in the field to understand their variation, reliability and consistency. Carrier frequency was the only call trait that was highly repeatable and hence was reliable and consistent. Following this I examined whether any of these call traits were indicators of male morphological traits (such as male size and fluctuating asymmetry) which are known to be preferred by females. It was found that carrier frequency was negatively correlated with body size; hence carrier frequency was both reliable and indicated male size. I also found that females preferred larger males during mating, as revealed by the longer mating durations and longer spermatophore retention time. Interestingly, though this study indicated that females could in principle use lower call carrier frequency to localize preferred larger males, simultaneous choice experiments done in the laboratory revealed that the females do not use this cue. These contrasting results may be because females are incapable of discriminating small differences in frequency or because they use non-acoustic cues for mate choice. However, whichever cues the females use to discriminate between males in the laboratory conditions, often these preferences are not realized in the field. The main reason behind this is that searching for preferred mates in the field can be costly and this might force females to choose sub-optimal males. Theoretical models predict that male movement and spacing in the field should influence female sampling tactics and in turn, females should drive the evolution of male movement and spacing to sample them optimally. Moreover, simultaneous sampling of males using the best-of-n or comparative Bayes strategy should yield maximum mating benefits to females. Many of the theoretical mate sampling strategies involves recall of the quality and location of individual males, which in turn requires male positions to be stable within a night. Calling males of O. henryi showed high site fidelity within a night, potentially enabling female sampling strategies that require recall. To examine the possibility of simultaneous acoustic sampling of males, I estimated male acoustic active spaces using information on male spacing, call transmission and female phonotactic threshold. Males were found to be spaced far apart and active space overlap was rare. I then examined female sampling scenarios by studying female spacing relative to male acoustic active spaces. Only 15% of sampled females could hear multiple males, suggesting that simultaneous mate sampling is rare in the field. Moreover, the relatively large distances between calling males suggest high search costs, which may favor threshold strategies that do not require memory. Using the insights gathered from these two studies I examined a unique calling behaviour from leaf holes, baffling, observed in this species. Baffling behaviour has been found in multiple species of the genus Oecanthus where the males call from selfmade holes in leaves rather than calling from leaf edges (their natural calling surface) thus increasing their loudness many fold. I started by examining the natural history of baffling and found that baffling is an extremely rare behaviour in the field. However field observations and laboratory experiments revealed that many males can baffle and hence it is not an obligatory behaviour shown only by a few males. It was hypothesized that one reason for the rarity of baffling could be resource limitation. It was found that baffling males prefer larger leaves possibly due to higher SPL gains achieved by baffling on the larger leaves, which is a limited resource in the field. However this alone was insufficient to explain extreme rarity of bafflers in the field. Hence I examined which males were using this behaviour in the field. Using field observations and laboratory experiments it was found that less preferred males (smaller and quieter) baffled more which provided them with higher calling SPL and greater sound-field volume and thus a higher number of potential mates. Moreover, baffling also increased the mating duration for the less preferred males thus providing more time to these males for sperm transfer. The females could not differentiate between an inherently loud caller and a caller whose SPL was increased artificially (as if it was baffling). Hence I concluded that baffling is probably a cheater strategy used by the less preferred males to fool the females into approaching them and mating for longer durations. To my knowledge, this is the first study that has estimated male call variation in the field to understand its role in female choice in tree crickets. Moreover this is also the first study to examine the ecological context of mate choice in tree crickets. This is also the first study to examine the advantages of baffling behaviour and its potential evolutionary implications. the different sensory modalities that play a role in sexual selection, acoustic communication plays an important one. Acoustic communication has been known to be used for male-male competition (territory maintenance, male aggression during mating),for advertisement to the opposite sex (mating status, body condition, genetic quality, nutritional status) and used by females to sample and choose conspecific preferred males. The use of acoustic communication for sexual display and information exchange has been extensively studied in multiple taxa, including insects, anurans, birds and mammals. Among insects, crickets have proven to be good model systems to study sexual selection based on acoustic communication as most species have an elaborate acoustic communication system, male advertisements, diverse types of mating incentives for females (such as glandular feeding) and a female dominated mating system. Generally, in crickets males produce species-specific calls which are used by females to localize conspecific males. Besides, calls show high levels of intraspecific variation and are energetically costly to produce. Moreover, as in crickets predominantly the females show phonotaxis towards male calls, calls also can play a role in mate sampling and choice by acting as indicators of preferred male quality. Despite being studied for many decades there are certain gaps in the studies examining mate choice in crickets. Some of them are, lack of understanding of the variation of male calling traits in nature and its role in signal evolution, lack of understanding regarding the ecological context of mate sampling and the evolution of alternative mating strategies. Hence, the tree cricket Oecanthus henryi was chosen as a study system to address these gaps in the understanding of female choice based on acoustic signals. In the tree cricket Oecanthus henryi, males call and females use calls to localize conspecific males and hence potentially females can choose males based on acoustic cues. To understand the evolution of female preference for male acoustic cues it is important to understand the variation in the calling songs in the field and identify repeatable call features that are reliable indicators of preferred male traits (morphological, developmental or genetic). I measured repeatability of male call traits in the field to understand their variation, reliability and consistency. Carrier frequency was the only call trait that was highly repeatable and hence was reliable and consistent. Following this I examined whether any of these call traits were indicators of male morphological traits (such as male size and fluctuating asymmetry) which are known to be preferred by females. It was found that carrier frequency was negatively correlated with body size; hence carrier frequency was both reliable and indicated male size. I also found that females preferred larger males during mating, as revealed by the longer mating durations and longer spermatophore retention time. Interestingly, though this study indicated that females could in principle use lower call carrier frequency to localize preferred larger males, simultaneous choice experiments done in the laboratory revealed that the females do not use this cue. These contrasting results may be because females are incapable of discriminating small differences in frequency or because they use non-acoustic cues for mate choice. However, whichever cues the females use to discriminate between males in the laboratory conditions, often these preferences are not realized in the field. The main reason behind this is that searching for preferred mates in the field can be costly and this might force females to choose sub-optimal males. Theoretical models predict that male movement and spacing in the field should influence female sampling tactics and in turn, females should drive the evolution of male movement and spacing to sample them optimally. Moreover, simultaneous sampling of males using the best-of-n or comparative Bayes strategy should yield maximum mating benefits to females. Many of the theoretical mate sampling strategies involves recall of the quality and location of individual males, which in turn requires male positions to be stable within a night. Calling males of O. henryi showed high site fidelity within a night, potentially enabling female sampling strategies that require recall. To examine the possibility of simultaneous acoustic sampling of males, I estimated male acoustic active spaces using information on male spacing, call transmission and female phonotactic threshold. Males were found to be spaced far apart and active space overlap was rare. I then examined female sampling scenarios by studying female spacing relative to male acoustic active spaces. Only 15% of sampled females could hear multiple males, suggesting that simultaneous mate sampling is rare in the field. Moreover, the relatively large distances between calling males suggest high search costs, which may favor threshold strategies that do not require memory. Using the insights gathered from these two studies I examined a unique calling behaviour from leaf holes, baffling, observed in this species. Baffling behaviour has been found in multiple species of the genus Oecanthus where the males call from self- made holes in leaves rather than calling from leaf edges (their natural calling surface) thus increasing their loudness many fold. I started by examining the natural history of baffling and found that baffling is an extremely rare behaviour in the field. However field observations and laboratory experiments revealed that many males can baffle and hence it is not an obligatory behaviour shown only by a few males. It was hypothesized that one reason for the rarity of baffling could be resource limitation. It was found that baffling males prefer larger leaves possibly due to higher SPL gains achieved by baffling on the larger leaves, which is a limited resource in the field. However this alone was insufficient to explain extreme rarity of bafflers in the field. Hence I examined which males were using this behaviour in the field. Using field observations and laboratory experiments it was found that less preferred males (smaller and quieter) baffled more which provided them with higher calling SPL and greater sound-field volume and thus a higher number of potential mates. Moreover, baffling also increased the mating duration for the less preferred males thus providing more time to these males for sperm transfer. The females could not differentiate between an inherently loud caller and a caller whose SPL was increased artificially (as if it was baffling). Hence I concluded that baffling is probably a cheater strategy used by the less preferred males to fool the females into approaching them and mating for longer durations. To my knowledge, this is the first study that has estimated male call variation in the field to understand its role in female choice in tree crickets. Moreover this is also the first study to examine the ecological context of mate choice in tree crickets. This is also the first study to examine the advantages of baffling behaviour and its potential evolutionary implications.

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