This thesis focused on the mechanisms involved in negative thermal expansion of 2D/3D lattice structures. The effects of varying the constituent materials and geometry were explored. The lattices had geometries similar to those found in light-weight structures in many transport applications, including aerospace and spacecraft. One specific case was to determine how to reduce the coefficient of thermal expansivity (CTE) of such structures to near zero, by using two constituent materials with contrasting CTEs, without incurring penalties in terms of other elastic and failure properties, mass and manufacturability. The lattice geometries able to exhibit altered CTE were explored, and penalties in terms of other elastic properties were quantified. The results were scale-independent and so were generic to all such lattices. Analytical prediction and generic relationships between the geometries of the lattices and their performance were proposed. Experimental validation of the model predictions was undertaken using physical samples. The thermomechanical properties were simulated by commercial finite element method (FEM) codes (Ansys 11, Ansys, Inc.). Ansys parametric design language was adopted to generate large sets of solutions to be evaluated against chosen criteria. Results show small or, in some cases, no penalties to be paid in terms of stiffness and mass for implementing dual-material lattices with near-zero CTE. Such lattices may compete favourably with high-cost and high-density materials (e.g. Invar) and the manufacture of dual-material lattices can be by standard processes or alternative new process such as Additive Layer Manufacturing (ALM). An example of truss core sandwich application for aerospace application was modelled by FEM. Applications as cores in sandwich panels might be the first route by which the ALM manufacturing process is required to develop dual-material capability.

<p>Elastic energy plays important roles in biology across scales, from the molecular to organismal level, and across the tree of life. The ubiquity of elastic systems in biology is partly due to the variety of useful functions they permit such as the simplification of motor control in running cockroaches and the efficient recycling of kinetic energy in hopping kangaroos. Elastic energy is also responsible for ultrafast movements; the fastest movements in animals are not powered directly by muscle, but instead by elastic energy stored in a spring. By demonstrating that the power required to generate ultrafast movements exceeds the limits of muscle, many studies conclude that energy storage is necessary; but, what these studies do not explain is how the properties of a biological structure affect its capacity for energy storage. In this dissertation, I test the general principles of energy storage by investigating elastic systems at three hierarchical levels of organization: a single structure, multiple connected structures, and a spring system connected to muscle. By using a multi-level approach, my aim is to demonstrate, at each of the mentioned levels, how properties of the spring system affect where or how much energy is stored in the system as well as how these conclusions can be combined to inform our understanding of the biomechanics of hierarchical elastic systems.</p><p>When considering spring systems at the level of a single structure, morphology is one major structural aspect that affects mechanics. Continuous changes in morphology are capable of dividing a structure into regions that are responsible for the two contradicting functions that are essential for spring function: energy storage (via deformation) and structural support (via resistance to deformation). Using high quality micro computed tomography scans, I quantify the morphology of the mantis shrimp (Stomatopoda) merus, a single structure of the raptorial appendage hypothesized to store the elastic energy that drives ultrafast strikes. Comparing the morphology among the species, I find that the merus in smashers, species that depend heavily on elastic energy storage, have relatively thicker ventral regions and more eccentric cross-sections than spearers, species that strike relatively slower. I also conclude that differential thickening of a region can provide structural support for resisting spring compression as well as facilitate structural deformation by inducing bending. This multi-level morphological analysis offers a foundation for understanding the evolution and mechanics of monolithic systems in biology.</p><p>When two or more structures are connected, their relative physical properties determine whether the structures store energy, provide structural support, or some combination of both. Although the majority of elastic energy is stored via large deformations of the merus in smashers, some spearer species show relatively little meral deformation, and it is unclear whether elastic energy is stored in these systems. To determine whether the apodeme (arthropod tendon) provides energy storage in species that exhibit low meral deformation, I measure the physical properties of the lateral extensor apodeme and the merus to which it is connected. Comparisons of these properties show that in the spearer species I tested, the merus has a relatively higher spring constant than the apodeme, which results in the merus providing structural support and the apodeme storing the majority of elastic energy. Comparing the material properties of the apodemes with those of other structures reveals that apodemes and other biological spring systems share similar material characteristics. This study demonstrates that in order to understand the biomechanics of spring systems comprised of connected structures, it is necessary to compare their relative mechanical properties.</p><p>Finally, because muscles are responsible for loading spring systems with potential energy, muscle dynamics can affect elastic energy storage in a spring system. Although spring systems can circumvent the limits imposed by muscle via power amplification, they are not entirely independent from muscle dynamics. For example, if an organism has relatively low time to prepare and stretch the spring prior to the onset of movement, the limits of muscle power can dominate energy storage. To test the effects of muscle dynamics on spring loading, I implement a mathematical model that connects a Hookean spring model to a Hill-type muscle model, representing the muscle-tendon complex of the hindlimbs of American bullfrogs, in which the muscle dynamics are well understood and the duration of spring loading is low. I find that the measured spring constants of the tendons nearly maximize energy storage within the duration of in vivo spring loading. Additionally, the measured spring constants are lower than those predicted to produce maximal energy storage when infinite time is available for spring loading. Together, these results suggest that the spring constants of the tendons of American bullfrogs are tuned to maximize elastic energy for small durations of spring loading. This study highlights the importance of assessing muscle dynamics and their effect on energy storage when assessing the functional significance of spring constants.</p> / Dissertation

This study details the dielectrophoretic assembly and mechanical characterization of boron nitride nanotubes on silicon chips with gold electrodes. The chips were fabricated from 4in round silicon wafers with a 100nm-thick low stress silicon nitride insulating layer on the top and bottom. The electrodes were patterned using photo- and electron-beam lithography and dry etching, and the wafers were cut into 4 x 6mm chips. The boron nitride nanotubes studied were obtained from NIA and were synthesized via a unique pressurized vapor/condensor method, which produced long, small-diameter BNNTs without the use of a catalyst. These nanotubes were studied due to their desirable mechanical and electrical properties, which allow for unique applications in various areas of science, engineering, and technology. Applications span from magnetic manipulation to the formation of biocomposites, from nano-transistors to humidity and pH sensors, and from MRI contrast agents to drug delivery. The nanotubes and nanotube bundles characterized were suspended over gaps of 300 to 500nm. This study was unique in that assembly was performed using dielectrophoresis, allowing for batch fabrication of chips and devices. Also, stiffness measurements were performed using AFM, eliminating the reliance of other methods upon electron microscopes, and allowing for imaging and measurements to occur simultaneously and at high resolution. It was found that DEP parameters of V = 2.0Vpp, f = 1kHz, and t = 2min provided the best results for mechanical testing. The nanotubes tested had suspended lengths of 300nm, the width of the electrode gap, and diameters of 15–65nm. Chips were imaged with both scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Force-displacement measurements with atomic force microscopy were used to find stiffness values in the range of 1–16N/m. These stiffness values, when plugged into a simple double-clamped beam model, indicated Young’s moduli of approximately 1–1600GPa. Within this wide range, it was shown that a decrease in diameter strongly correlated exponentially to an increase in Young’s modulus. Work in this study was divided between assembly and characterization. Therefore, a lot of time was spent working to optimize dielectrophoresis parameters, followed by SEM and AFM imaging. Parameters that were adjusted included DEP voltage and time, pre-DEP sonication times, as well as adding a centrifuging procedure to attempt to better separate nanotube bundles in solution. Another method discussed but not pursued was the use of surfactants to agitate the solution, thus separating the nanotubes. The reason this material in particular was so difficult to separate was twofold. First, the small size of the nanotubes—individual BNNTs have diameters on the order of ∼5 nanometers—generates very strong nanoscale van der Waals forces holding the nanotubes together. Larger nanotubes—with diameters on the order of 50 to 100nm or more—suffer less from this problem. Also, the dipoles created by the boron-nitrogen bonds cause attraction between adjacent nanotubes. The results shown in this thesis include DEP parameters, SEM and AFM images, and force- displacement curves leading to nanotube stiffness and Young’s modulus values. The force-displacement tests via AFM are also detailed and explained.

The superior material properties of polymer/clay nanocomposites have attracted much research interests in the past years. The hypothesis of polymer stiffening in the vicinity of the nano-c1ay described using the "core-shell" model has not been fully investigated yet. The investigation of the interfacial region by atomic force microscopy (AFM) has provided us with details of the physical state of this region. It was found that the polymer stiffening region could extend as far as 200nm and 100nm from the face and the edge of a nano-clay respectively. Two different degrees of polymer stiffening have been observed from AFM micrographs with the help of amplitude and phase contrasting techniques. The temperature dependant property of the stiffened polymer has been studied using a heating stage, which showed the stiffened polymer was softened with increasing temperature between the studied range, 60°C and 91°C. The relative polymer crystallinity derived from the X-ray diffraction (XRD) data showed a general trend that increases with the clay content, regardless of the clay modification. However, an exception has been observed with the set of bi-axially drawn specimens, of which the highest polymer crystallinity was found to be the neat polymer when compared with the nanocomposites counterpart. It is believed that the presence of nano-c1ay particles restricted the reorientation of the polymer chains upon stress. From the in situ isothermal investigation of polymer crystal growth, it has been found the crystal grown from a nano-clay particle is larger than that from the bulk. This indicated that the crystallisation began at a lower temperature. The nano-clay and polymer crystal orientations have been further studied with X-ray texture analysis. It was found that the polymer chains were not completely aligned alone the extrusion direction as expected. Also, from the annealed specimens it was found that the orientation of the nano-clay particles had been influenced by the relaxation of the polymer chains.

Spray forming with eo-injection of a solid particulate phase to form a metal-metal composite has been studied as a new route for manufacture. Two Al-based matrices were investigated: AI-12Si for testing the feasibility of the new manufacturing route and Al-4Cu for providing better mechanical performance. For both composite types, Ti was chosen as the particulate phase and the processing-microstructure-property relationships then studied. At Peak Werkstoff GmbH, Germany 12 wt%Ti particles were eo-injected into an atomised Al alloy droplet spray and eo-deposited to form a rv300 kg billet. The microstructure comprised refined equiaxed a-AI grains (rv5fLm), spherical Si particles (rv5fLm) and uniformly distributed Ti particles (rv80fLm). Sections of the billet were extruded under a range of conditions into long strips 20mm wide and 6mm, 2.5mm and 1mm thickness. At high strains, the Ti particles were deformed into continuous fibres of a few microns in thickness. Accumulative roll bonding was then performed to higher total strains, while maintaining a constant cross-section, reducing the Ti fibres to sub-micron thickness. The fibres were studied by extraction after selective dissolution of the a-AI matrix. There was no interfacial reaction between a-AI and Ti or any measurable oxide formation, thus providing encouragement for the manufacture of metal-metal composites by eo-spray forming. A powder injection pump was successfully integrated and commissioned on the spray forming facility at Oxford University. The pump was calibrated to optimise powder flow rates. Three AI-4Cu+ Ti composite billets were processed with each containing Ti powder with a different processing history. Up to 20vol%Ti was successfully incorporated, however due to the cooling effect from powder injection, porosity was significant. The quenching effect provided a finer AI-4Cu grain structure in the region of Ti injection, and also promoted precipitation of O'-AbCu precipitates. A Ti/ Al-4Cu interfacial reaction was more prominent in the billet spray formed at 850°C than those spray formed at 750°C. Angular Ti processed by a hydride-dehydride route had better deformation characteristics than spherical gas atomised Ti. Deformation processing by extrusion and rolling was investigated for Al-4Cu+20vol%Ti using SEM, EBSD and FIB. After extrusion to a strain of 5, the composite contained elongated reinforcing fibres characteristic of metal-metal composites. The microstructure studied by EBSD revealed equiaxed polygonal Al-4Cu matrix grains. Rolling was not as efficient as extrusion in producing elongated Ti fibres and was attributed to a lower deformation processing temperature. The rolled composites consisted of elongated Al-4Cu grains 1-5J1m in thickness. An UTS of 339MPa at a strain of 3 was attributed to texture strengthening in the Q- AI.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito de diferentes protocolos de desgaste nas características superficiais e comportamento mecânico da zircônia utilizada para confeccionar infraestruturas e pilares protéticos. Amostras em forma de barra foram obtidas e divididas em três grupos (n=21): Grupo C (controle, não recebeu nenhum tipo de modificação superficial), Grupo A (desgaste realizado com fresas diamantadas de granulação média e acabamento com fresas diamantadas de granulação fina, com caneta de alta rotação sob refrigeração abundante de água) e Grupo B (desgaste realizado com pedras diamantadas de granulação grossa e acabamento realizado com pedras diamantadas de granulação média, com peça de mão acoplada em motor de baixa rotação e sem refrigeração). A topografia e rugosidade superficial (Sa) foram obtidos por microscopia confocal a laser (n=21), o módulo de elasticidade dinâmico (n=21) foi obtido por uma técnica de excitação por impulso, a transformação de fase foi avaliada por meio de difração de raios-X (n=1) e fadiga mecânica acelerada foi realizada pelo método step stress (n=18). A análise estatística para rugosidade superficial e módulo de elasticidade foi ANOVA de um fator e teste complementar de Tukey e a resistência à fadiga foi comparada pela probabilidade de sobrevivência nos diferentes tipos de carregamento, quanto ao número de ciclos e a força. Houve diferença estatística entre os grupos para rugosidade superficial (Grupo A>Grupo B>Grupo C) (p&le;0,05)e módulo de elasticidade dinâmico (Grupo B>Grupo A=Grupo C) (p=0,003). A difração de raios-X revelou mudança de fase cristalina para os grupos desgastados, sendo que o Grupo C apresentou conteúdo cristalino somente na fase tetragonal, o Grupo A na fase tetragonal e monoclínica, e o Grupo B na fase tetragonal e cúbica. Não houve diferença estatística entre os grupos quando a taxa de sobrevivência foi comparada quanto ao número de ciclos e a força. Apesar do desgaste ter modificado as características superficiais, não houve prejuízo no comportamento mecânico da zircônia / The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of different grinding protocols on surface characteristics and mechanical behavior of Y-TZP used to manufacture copings and abutments. Bar-shaped specimens were obtained and divided into three groups (n=21): Group C (control, untreated), Group A (grinding was performed using medium diamond burs, finishing was performed using fine diamond burs and high-speed hand piece under constant water cooling) and Group B (grinding was performed using coarse diamond stone, finishing was performed using medium diamond stone and slow-speed hand piece without water cooling). After the specimen grinding, topography and surface roughness (n=21) were evaluated on laser confocal microscope, the Youngs modulus (n=21) was performed using the impulse excitation technique, crystallographic phase change was performed using an x-ray diffraction (n=1) and step-stress accelerated life testing (n=18) was performed. One-way ANOVA and Tukeys test were performed to analyze surface roughness and Youngs modulus, and step-stress accelerated life testing was compared by the probability of survival, considering the number of cycles and strength. There was statistically significant difference between groups considering surface roughness (Group A>Group B>Group C) (p&le;0,05) and Youngs modulus (Group B>Group A=Group C) (p=0,003). X-ray diffraction data showed that grinding leads to phase change, once Group C showed only tetragonal phase, Group A showed tetragonal and monoclinic phases and Group B showed tetragonal and cubic phases. There was no statistically significant difference among groups when the probability of survival was compared considering the number of cycles and strength. Although tested grinding protocols had modified the surface characteristics, did not damage the mechanical behavior of the zirconia

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering, 2017 / This research has considered an idealistic non-interleaved planar transformer wherein only the electromagnetic parasitic capacitive and inductive elements arising out of the transformer geometry are taken into account, without considering material limitations. A suitable model for the planar transformer is used to analyse its frequency and power transfer characteristics; this model was validated by three dimensional electromagnetic simulations of various planar transformer structures in FEKO simulation software. The capacitive and inductive parasitics in this model have been found to be functions of the dielectric thickness. The theoretical bandwidth for the planar transformer is defined in this research as a function of dielectric thickness. The effect of dielectric thickness of the transformer windings on the bandwidth of the transformer is analysed, based on the premise that the inherent parasitic capacitive and inductive elements would affect the transfer characteristics of the transformer. Upon conclusion of this analysis, it is found that the dielectric thickness of a planar transformer can be optimised such as to present an optimised bandwidth. A closed form analytic expression for the optimum dielectric thickness value is derived and presented in this research. In a design example of a 4:1 50W transformer presented in this research, it has been shown that the bandwidth can be improved by 384%, along with a power density improvement of 45%, upon choosing of an optimum dielectric thickness of 0.156mm to replace a standard 0.4mm thick dielectric. It should be noted that the results derived in this research are purely theoretical, justified by many idealisations and assumptions that are argued throughout the research. It is thus expected that practical results should at best approach the theoretical results, due to the known non-ideal nature of reality. / CK2018

Estudou-se a polimerização do álcool furfurílico líquido na interface nonômero-catalisador delimitada pelo interior de um tubo de vidro capilar. A superfície do álcool furfurílico líquido contido em um tubo de vidro de diâmetro interno inferior a 5.4mm foi exposta aos vapores de ácido clorídrico concentrado, o catalisador. Observou-se a formação de uma película auto-organizada e colorida na interface que, sob a ação da gravidade, cai para o interior do tubo com velocidade constante. O espectro de absorção óptica identificou a formação de oligômeros com picos de absorção em 570nm, 650nm, 770nm e 930nm, sendo a de 650nm a mais de peso molecular dos oligômeros difere fortemente daqueles formados por catálise homogênea. A condutância dessas películas foi observada medindo-se a resistência elétrica de películas formadas sobre uma placa invertida de vidro plano / The polymerization of furfuryl alcohol in the interface alcohol-concentrated hydrochloric acid vapor was studied inside glass tubes whose internal diameter were smaller than 5.4mm. Shortly after exposition of furfuryl alcohol to the acid vapor an auto organized bluish pellicle is generated that under gravity falls inside the tube with constant velocity. The observed optical absorption spectrum peaks at 570nm, 650nm, 770nm and 930nm were attributed to oligomers with 3, 5, 7 and 9 mers, respectively. The optical absorption band at 650nm being the stronger. The oligomers molecular weight distribution so formed was found to strongly differ of the ones formed by homogeneous catalysis. The electrical conductivity of these pellicles, made of conjugated oligomers, were observed measuring the electrical resistance of pellicles specially made on the flat inverted glass plate

A ingestão de dietas com níveis elevados de flúor interfere na mineralização óssea e, conseqüentemente, poderá influenciar nas propriedades mecânicas dos ossos. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar e avaliar algumas propriedades mecânicas de fêmures de coelhos submetidos a dietas com diferentes concentrações de flúor, mediante ensaios mecânicos de flexão em três pontos. Foram utilizados os fêmures de 40 coelhos machos, albinos, da raça Nova Zelândia com 1 mês de idade. Durante 40 dias os animais, divididos em 5 grupos, receberam dietas contendo diferentes concentrações de flúor. As propriedades mecânicas da deformação proporcional e resiliência, apresentaram diferença estatisticamente significante. Houve redução nos valores para rigidez, tensão máxima, carga máxima, mas sem diferença estatisticamente significante, para os grupos com maior concentração de flúor. Diante destas considerações e dos achados neste trabalho, fica evidente a necessidade de mais investigações para caracterizar a relação entre o flúor e as propriedades mecânicas. / High levels of fluoride ingestion may interfere with bone mineralization and, therefore, cause modification in the bone mechanical properties. In this investigation we studied the relationship between some mechanical properties of the rabbit femur and different concentration of fluoride in the diets. It was performed the three bending test in forty femurs obtained from New Zealand white rabbits that had been fed with diet with different fluoride concentration during 40 days since they were one month old. The animals were divided into 5 different groups according to the fluoride concentration in diets. The resilience and proportional deformation were higher for the group with the highest fluoride ingestion and there was no difference among the other groups. Rigidity, ultimate load and tension were lower as fluoride concentration increased but with no statistical difference. It was concluded that more investigation is necessary to establish the relationship of the mechanical properties with fluoride intake.

O aquecimento terapêutico e o treinamento com saltos verticais são modalidades de escolha para tratamentos nas várias áreas da medicina e da fisioterapia. Na literatura poucos estudos avaliaram a resistência do tendão calcâneo pós-aquecimento, principalmente em tecidos aquecidos a temperaturas elevadas (42 e 45°C). Este estudo teve o objetivo de comparar certas propriedades mecânicas do tendão calcâneo de ratos como: força no limite de resistência máxima (N), rigidez (N/m) e energia absorvida até o ponto de ruptura (mJ), após o aquecimento induzido in vivo por convecção associado ao exercício físico (saltos verticais) e posteriormente investigar quantitativamente e qualitativamente as alterações estruturais na proteína colágeno presente no tendão, por meio de análises histológicas (hematoxilina e eosina, picro-sirius), força atômica (AFM) e birrefringência. No presente estudo foram utilizados 35 Ratos Albinus da Raça Wistar, todos machos divididos em 7 grupos (grupo controle GC, I, II, III, IV, V e VI). O GC foi utilizado exclusivamente para análises histológicas, os grupos I (sem alteração térmica), III (42°C) e V (45°C) não passaram por exercícios físicos, os grupos II (sem alteração térmica), IV(42°C) e VI (45°C) passaram por exercícios físicos (saltos verticais) e todos os grupos passaram por ensaio mecânico de tração. De uma maneira generalizada os resultados para as análises mostraram uma diferença do grupo controle GC, I, II em relação aos grupos III, IV, V e VI, o que fez perceber que em temperaturas elevadas há danos no tecido tendíneo e em temperaturas iguais e ou acima de 42°C e 45°C associado ao exercício físico de saltos verticais o dano acentua-se. Há um início de danos ao tecido tendíneo, acentuando-se na temperatura de 45°C e os eventos constatados nas análises histológicas foram comprovados nos resultados dos ensaios mecânicos de tração. / Therapeutic heating and vertical jumps are training modalities of choice for treatment in various areas of medicine and physiotherapy. In the literature, few studies have evaluated the resistance of the Achilles tendon post-heating, especially in tissues heated to high temperatures (42 to 45°C). This study aims to compare certain mechanical properties of the Achilles tendon of rats as: strength in the limit of maximum resistance (N), stiffness (N/m) and energy absorbed to the point of rupture (mJ) after heat induction in vivo by convection associated with exercise (vertical jumps)and subsequently investigate qualitatively and quantitatively the structural changes in collagen protein present in the tendon by histological analysis (hematoxylin and eosin, picro-sirius red), atomic force (AFM) and birefringence. The present study used 35 Wistar rats, all males divided into 7 groups (control group GC, I, II, III, IV, V e VI). GC was used exclusively for histological analysis, the group I (no thermal alteration), III (42°C) and V (45°C) did not undergo physical exercises, groups II (without thermal alteration), IV (42°C) and VI (45°C) underwent exercise (vertical jumps) and all groups underwent mechanical tests. The results for the analyzes showed a difference between the GC, I, II groups in relation to III, IV, V and VI, showing that at elevated temperatures occurred a damage in tendon tissue and for temperatures equal or above 42°C and 45°C associated with the exercise of vertical jumps the damage is accentuated. There is an early tissue damage, with a peak temperature of 45°C and the events recorded in the histologic analyses were confirmed in the results of tensile test.