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Este trabalho investiga o processo de apreensão do princípio de conservação da energia mecânica por alunos em diferentes momentos da instrução formal. O trabalho é justificado pelos relatos existentes acerca da complexidade que envolve o conceito de energia, o princípio de conservação da energia, degradação e conversão relacionadas aos materiais didáticos, à sua estrutura epistemológica racional e, principalmente, à sua aprendizagem. Consideramos, para isso, duas dimensões que julgamos centrais para essa discussão: a primeira refere-se ao desenvolvimento histórico-epistemológico do conceito e, a segunda, ao seu desenvolvimento em nível individual ou cognitivo. Para a primeira dimensão resgatamos pontos chaves do desenvolvimento histórico do princípio de conservação da energia, sua relação com a conservação da vis viva e os diferentes desenvolvimentos do teorema trabalho-energia, sendo um realizado por Lazare Carnot e, outro, por Lagrange. Consoante a isso apresentamos, orbitando à primeira dimensão, de que maneira o conceito de energia mecânica é tratado em alguns manuais de ensino universitário e uma síntese dos trabalhos voltados para o conceito de energia na área de Ensino de Ciências. Para a segunda dimensão pesquisamos os conhecimentos mobilizados por estudantes de diferentes níveis privilegiando duas metodologias: a primeira num estudo coletivo, que chamamos de preliminar e, outra, em nível do indivíduo, aprofundado. A intenção do estudo preliminar foi a de verificar e confirmar que alunos que se encontram em momentos mais avançados de ensino tendem a mobilizar e articular conceitos com maior pertinência do que aqueles que se encontram em momentos anteriores. Foram aplicados 158 questionários e analisados à luz de categorias existentes na literatura da área, possibilitando a aproximação com os dados relatados em pesquisas longitudinais. A partir dessa análise e da literatura, foi possível elencar 8 situações na perspectiva de aprofundarmos o entendimento de como ocorre, de maneira explícita ou implícita, o processo de aprendizagem de 6 sujeitos para os conceitos-chaves levantados durante a ação da resolução das situações com mediação do investigador. As mediações foram gravadas em vídeo e áudio e integralmente transcritas para análise. O referencial teórico adotado para a investigação da conceitualização é a Teoria dos Campos Conceituais de Gérard Vergnaud. A análise das condutas dos sujeitos-em-ação nos permitiu inferir, por exemplo, que os sujeitos-em-ação reconhecem a conservação da energia mecânica e até mesmo, implicitamente, a expressão matemática do teorema trabalho-energia capaz de representar essa conservação na sua forma integral. Por outro lado, os dados analisados no estudo aprofundado sugerem que a dinâmica newtoniana parece atuar como obstáculo epistemológico para a aprendizagem da conservação da energia mecânica. / This work investigates the learning process of the conservation of mechanical energy by students in different levels of formal education. The work is justified by researches involving the concept of energy, the principle of the conservation and degradation of energy and transforming process related to the instructional materials. Furthermore, the complexity of rational epistemological structure of those concepts and its learning. In this case, two dimensions are considered as main points: the first one refers to the development of historical-epistemological concept and the second one to the individual cognitive development. For the first dimension, we accomplished the key points of the historical development of the principle of conservation of energy, its relation with the vis viva conservation and different developments of the work-energy theorem which were made by Lazare Carnot and other by Lagrange. According to that, we present the concept of the mechanical energy within some university books and a synthesis of works devoting the concept of the mechanical energy within the Science Learning studies. For the second dimension, we made a research about knowledge utilized by the pupils of different levels specializing in two methodologies: first about collective research called pre-study and the second one about individual research called detailed study. The aim of pre-study was to verify and confirm that high school and undergraduate students tends to mobilize and articulate concepts with better form in accordance with their level; those studies are called cross-grade or longitudinal studies. We applied and categorized 158 questionnaires which had been possible to approximate data related in longitudinal researches. After that, according to the literature, it was possible to organize 8 situations to carefully investigate how do the learning process occur, explicitly or implicitly, in 6 students about key concepts that have been appeared during the act of the resolution of the situations with mediation of the researcher. The mediations were recorded in video and audio and fully transcribed to our analysis. The framework adopted to investigate the conceptualization was the Theory of Conceptual Fields developed by the French cognitivist Gérard Vergnaud. The conduct analyses of the subjects action allowed us to infer, for example, that students recognized the conservation of the mechanical energy during the action of the students and implicitly they recognized the mathematical function that express this conservation in integral form. Moreover, the data suggests that the Newtonian dynamics acts as epistemological obstacle to the learning of the conservation of the mechanical energy.

Le concept de la récupération d'énergie se rapporte généralement au processus d'utilisation de l'énergie ambiante, qui est converti, principalement (mais pas exclusivement) en énergie électrique pour faire fonctionner des dispositifs électroniques petites et autonomes. Les tendances récentes à la fois dans l'industrie et au domaine de la recherche ont mis l'accent sur les polymères électro-actifs pour la conversion d'énergie électromécanique. Cet intérêt s'explique par de nombreux avantages tels que la productivité élevée, la grande flexibilité, et la facilité de traitement. Le but de ce travail de recherche est d’explorer la potentialité des polymères électro-actifs pour une application de récupération d’énergie mécanique ambiante. Dans la première partie, une synthèse des composites à base de polyuréthane (PU) et de P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) a été réalisée, suivie d’une caractérisation électrique et mécanique de ces polymères et composites afin d’évaluer leurs paramètres intrinsèques. La seconde partie de ce travail de thèse concerne la caractérisation électromécanique de ces polymères. Un modèle analytique électromécanique est mise en place afin de déterminer finement le comportement physique des polymères électrostrictifs ainsi que les variations de leurs paramètres intrinsèques. Ce modèle analytique est validé par une série de tests à travers un banc d’essai. La dernière partie de ce travail consiste à évaluer les performances électromécaniques des polymères électrostrictifs pour la récupération d’énergie mécanique. Deux nouvelles techniques sont testées afin de maximiser la densité d’énergie récupérée. Ainsi qu’une comparaison avec les méthodes classiques a été réalisée. Un excellent potentiel de ces techniques pour la récupération d'énergie a été démontré. Le deuxième point porte sur l’étude de l’efficacité de la conversion électromécanique pour la récupération d’énergie mécanique en utilisant l'analyse spectrale FFT. Il a été montré que cette méthode permet de prévoir le rendement énergétique de nos polymères en accord avec les prédictions théoriques. Le dernier point se focalise sur l’amélioration de cette efficacité de conversion électromécanique en utilisant des électrets de polypropylène cellulaire, afin d’assurer un meilleur rendement énergétique. / The concept of energy harvesting generally relates to the process of using ambient energy, which is converted, primarily (but not exclusively) into electrical energy in order to power small and autonomous electronic devices. Recent trends in both industrial and research fields have focused on electro-active polymers for electromechanical energy conversion. This interest is explained by many advantages such as high productivity, high flexibility, and processability. The purpose of this research work is to explore the potential of electro-active polymers for application of mechanical energy harvesting. At first, a synthesis of the composite based on polyurethane (PU) and P (VDF-TrFE-CFE) was performed, followed by electrical and mechanical characterization of these polymers and composites in order to evaluate their intrinsic parameters. The second part of this thesis concerns electromechanical characterization of these polymers. An electromechanical analytic modeling is detailed in order to determine the physical behavior of electrostrictive polymers and the variations of intrinsic parameters. This modeling is validated by a series of tests using a test bench. The last part of this work consists to evaluate the electromechanical performance of electrostrictive polymers for the mechanical energy harvesting. Two new techniques are tested in order to maximize the density of energy recovered. As well as a comparison against those classic has been performed. Excellent potential of these techniques for energy harvesting has been demonstrated. The second point is about the study of the electromechanical conversion efficiency for scavenging mechanical energy using spectral analysis FFT. It was shown that this method allows predicting the energy efficiency of our polymers, in accordance with the results predicted by the model. The last point focuses on improving the efficiency of electromechanical conversion by using cellular polypropylene electrets to ensure better energy efficiency.

The primary requirements for a modern industrial gas turbine consist of a continuous trend of an increasing efficiency combined with very low emissions in a robust, cost-effective manner. To fulfil these tasks a high turbine inlet temperature together with advanced dry low NOX combustion chambers are employed. These dry low NOX combustion chambers generate a rather flat temperature profile compared to previous generation gas turbines, which have a rather parabolic temperature profile before the nozzle guide vane. This means that the nozzle guide vane endwall heat load for modern gas turbines is much higher compared to previous generation gas turbines. Therefore the prediction of the nozzle guide vane flow field and endwall heat transfer is crucial for the engineering task of the design layout of the vane endwall cooling system. The present study is directed towards establishing new in-depth aerodynamic and endwall heat transfer knowledge for an advanced nozzle guide vane of a modern industrial gas turbine. To reach this objective the physical processes and effects which cause the different flow fields and the endwall heat transfer pattern in a baseline configuration, a combustion chamber variant, a heat shield variant without and with additional cooling air and a cavity variant without and with additional cooling air have been investigated. The variants, which differ from the simplified baseline configuration, apply design elements which are commonly used in real modern gas turbines. This research area is crucial for the nozzle guide vane endwall heat transfer, especially for the advanced design of the nozzle guide vane of a modern industrial gas turbine and has so far hardly been investigated in the open literature. For the experimental aerodynamic and endwall heat transfer research of the baseline configuration of the advanced nozzle guide vane geometry a new low pressure, low temperature test facility has been developed, designed and constructed, since no experimental heat transfer data exist in the open literature for this type of vane configuration. The new test rig consists of a linear cascade with the baseline configuration of the advanced nozzle guide vane geometry with four upscaled airfoils and three flow passages. For the aerodynamic tests the two middle airfoils and the hub and the tip endwall are instrumented with pressure taps to monitor the Mach number distribution. For the heat transfer tests the temperature distribution on the hub endwall is measured via thermography. The analysis of these measurements, including comparisons to research in the open literature shows that the new test rig generates accurate and reproducible results which give confidence that it is a reliable tool for the experimental aerodynamic and heat transfer research on the advanced nozzle guide vane of a modern industrial gas turbine. Previous own research work together with the numerical analysis performed in another part of the project as well as conclusions from a detailed literature study lead to the conclusion that advanced Navier-Stokes CFD tools with the v2-f turbulence model are most suitable for the calculation of the flow field and the endwall heat transfer of turbine vanes and blades. Therefore this numerical tool, validated against different vane and blade geometries and for different flow conditions, has been chosen for the numerical aerodynamic and endwall heat transfer research of the advanced nozzle guide vane of a modern industrial gas turbine. The evaluation of the numerical and experimental investigations of the baseline configuration of the advanced design of a nozzle guide vane shows the flow field of an advanced mid-loaded airfoil design with the features to reduce total airfoil losses. For the hub endwall of the baseline configuration of the advanced design of a nozzle guide vane the flow characteristics and heat transfer features of the classical vane endwall secondary flow model can be detected with a very weak intensity and geometric extension compared to the studies of less advanced vane geometries in the open literature. A detailed analysis of the numerical simulations and the experimental data showed very good qualitative and quantitative agreement for the three-dimensional flow field and the endwall heat transfer. These findings, together with the evaluations obtained from the open literature, lead to the conclusions that selected CFD software Fluent together with the applied v2-f turbulence model exhibits a high level of general applicability and is not tuned to a special vane or blade geometry. Therefore the CFD code Fluent with the v2-f turbulence model has been selected for the research of the influence of the several geometric variants of the baseline configuration on the flow field and the hub endwall heat transfer of the advanced nozzle guide vane of a modern industrial gas turbine. Most of the vane endwall heat transfer research in the open literature has been carried out only for baseline configurations of the flow path between combustion chamber and nozzle guide vane. Such a simplified geometry consists of a long, planar undisturbed approach length upstream of the nozzle guide vane. The design of real modern industrial gas turbines however requires often significant variations from this baseline configuration consisting of air-cooled heat shields and purged cavities between the combustion chamber and the nozzle guide vane. A detailed evaluation of the flow field and the endwall heat transfer shows major differences between the baseline and the heat shield configuration. The heat shield in front of the airfoil of the nozzle guide vane influences the secondary flow field and the endwall heat transfer pattern strongly. Additional cooling air, released under the heat shield has a distinctive influence as well. Also the cavity between the combustion chamber and the nozzle guide vane affects the secondary flow field and the endwall heat transfer pattern. Here the influence of additional cavity cooling air is more decisive. The results of the detailed studies of the geometric variants are applied to formulate guidelines for an optimized design of the flow path between the combustion chamber and the nozzle guide vane and the nozzle guide vane endwall cooling configuration of next-generation industrial gas turbines. / QC 20100917

Este trabalho investiga o processo de apreensão do princípio de conservação da energia mecânica por alunos em diferentes momentos da instrução formal. O trabalho é justificado pelos relatos existentes acerca da complexidade que envolve o conceito de energia, o princípio de conservação da energia, degradação e conversão relacionadas aos materiais didáticos, à sua estrutura epistemológica racional e, principalmente, à sua aprendizagem. Consideramos, para isso, duas dimensões que julgamos centrais para essa discussão: a primeira refere-se ao desenvolvimento histórico-epistemológico do conceito e, a segunda, ao seu desenvolvimento em nível individual ou cognitivo. Para a primeira dimensão resgatamos pontos chaves do desenvolvimento histórico do princípio de conservação da energia, sua relação com a conservação da vis viva e os diferentes desenvolvimentos do teorema trabalho-energia, sendo um realizado por Lazare Carnot e, outro, por Lagrange. Consoante a isso apresentamos, orbitando à primeira dimensão, de que maneira o conceito de energia mecânica é tratado em alguns manuais de ensino universitário e uma síntese dos trabalhos voltados para o conceito de energia na área de Ensino de Ciências. Para a segunda dimensão pesquisamos os conhecimentos mobilizados por estudantes de diferentes níveis privilegiando duas metodologias: a primeira num estudo coletivo, que chamamos de preliminar e, outra, em nível do indivíduo, aprofundado. A intenção do estudo preliminar foi a de verificar e confirmar que alunos que se encontram em momentos mais avançados de ensino tendem a mobilizar e articular conceitos com maior pertinência do que aqueles que se encontram em momentos anteriores. Foram aplicados 158 questionários e analisados à luz de categorias existentes na literatura da área, possibilitando a aproximação com os dados relatados em pesquisas longitudinais. A partir dessa análise e da literatura, foi possível elencar 8 situações na perspectiva de aprofundarmos o entendimento de como ocorre, de maneira explícita ou implícita, o processo de aprendizagem de 6 sujeitos para os conceitos-chaves levantados durante a ação da resolução das situações com mediação do investigador. As mediações foram gravadas em vídeo e áudio e integralmente transcritas para análise. O referencial teórico adotado para a investigação da conceitualização é a Teoria dos Campos Conceituais de Gérard Vergnaud. A análise das condutas dos sujeitos-em-ação nos permitiu inferir, por exemplo, que os sujeitos-em-ação reconhecem a conservação da energia mecânica e até mesmo, implicitamente, a expressão matemática do teorema trabalho-energia capaz de representar essa conservação na sua forma integral. Por outro lado, os dados analisados no estudo aprofundado sugerem que a dinâmica newtoniana parece atuar como obstáculo epistemológico para a aprendizagem da conservação da energia mecânica. / This work investigates the learning process of the conservation of mechanical energy by students in different levels of formal education. The work is justified by researches involving the concept of energy, the principle of the conservation and degradation of energy and transforming process related to the instructional materials. Furthermore, the complexity of rational epistemological structure of those concepts and its learning. In this case, two dimensions are considered as main points: the first one refers to the development of historical-epistemological concept and the second one to the individual cognitive development. For the first dimension, we accomplished the key points of the historical development of the principle of conservation of energy, its relation with the vis viva conservation and different developments of the work-energy theorem which were made by Lazare Carnot and other by Lagrange. According to that, we present the concept of the mechanical energy within some university books and a synthesis of works devoting the concept of the mechanical energy within the Science Learning studies. For the second dimension, we made a research about knowledge utilized by the pupils of different levels specializing in two methodologies: first about collective research called pre-study and the second one about individual research called detailed study. The aim of pre-study was to verify and confirm that high school and undergraduate students tends to mobilize and articulate concepts with better form in accordance with their level; those studies are called cross-grade or longitudinal studies. We applied and categorized 158 questionnaires which had been possible to approximate data related in longitudinal researches. After that, according to the literature, it was possible to organize 8 situations to carefully investigate how do the learning process occur, explicitly or implicitly, in 6 students about key concepts that have been appeared during the act of the resolution of the situations with mediation of the researcher. The mediations were recorded in video and audio and fully transcribed to our analysis. The framework adopted to investigate the conceptualization was the Theory of Conceptual Fields developed by the French cognitivist Gérard Vergnaud. The conduct analyses of the subjects action allowed us to infer, for example, that students recognized the conservation of the mechanical energy during the action of the students and implicitly they recognized the mathematical function that express this conservation in integral form. Moreover, the data suggests that the Newtonian dynamics acts as epistemological obstacle to the learning of the conservation of the mechanical energy.

Continued emission of green house gases has energized research activity worldwide to develop efficient ways to harness renewal energy. The availability of large scale energy storage technologies is essential to make renewal energy a reliable source of energy. Redox flow batteries show potential in this direction. These batteries typically need expensive membranes which need replacement be-cause of fouling. The recently proposed soluble lead redox flow battery (SLRFB), in which lead ions deposit on electrodes in charge cycle and dissolve back in discharge cycle, can potentially cut down the cost of energy storage by eliminating membrane. A number of challenges need to be overcome though. Low cycleability, residue formation, and low efficiencies are foremost among these, all of which require an understanding of the underlying mechanisms. A model of laminar flow-through SLRFB is first developed to understand buildup of residue on electrodes with continued cycling. The model accounts for spatially and temporally growing concentration boundary layers on electrodes in a self consistent manner by permitting local deposition/dissolution rates to be controlled by local ion transport and reaction conditions. The model suggests controlling role for charge transfer reaction on electrodes (anode in particular) and movement of ions in the bulk and concentration boundary layers. The non-uniform current density on electrodes emerges as key to formation of bare patches, steep decrease in voltage marking the end of discharge cycle, and residue buildup with continuing cycles. The model captures the experimental observations very well, and points to improved operational efficiency and decreased residue build up with cylindrical electrodes and alternating flow direction of recirculation. The underlying mechanism for more than an order of magnitude increase in cycle life of a beaker cell battery with increase in stirrer speed is unraveled next. Our experiments show that charging with and without stirring occurs identically, which brings up the hitherto unknown but quite strong role of natural convection in SLRFB. The role of stirring is determined to be dislodgement/disintegration of residue building up on electrodes. The depletion of active material from electrolyte due to residue formation is offset by “internal regeneration mechanism”, unraveled in the present work. When the rate of residue formation, rate of dislodging/disintegration from electrode, and rate of regeneration of active material in bulk of the electrolyte becomes equal, perpetual operation of SLRFB is expected. The identification of strong role of free convection in battery is put to use to demonstrate a battery that requires stirring/mixing only intermittently, during open circuit stages between charge and discharge cycles when no current is drawn. Inspired by our experimental finding that the measured currents for apparently diffusion limited situations (no external flow) are far larger than the maxi-mum possible theoretical value, the earlier model is modified to account for natural convection driven by concentration gradient of lead ions in electrolyte. The model reveals the presence of strong natural convection in battery. The induced flow in the vicinity of the electrodes enhances mass transport rates substantially, to the extent that even in the absence of external flow, normal charge/discharge of battery is predicted. The model predicted electrochemical characteristics are verified quantitatively through voltage-time measurements. The formation of flow circulation loops driven by electrode processes is validated qualitatively through PIV measurements. Natural convection is predicted to play a significant role in the presence of external flow as well. The hitherto unexplained finding in the literature on insensitivity of charge-discharge characteristics to electrolyte flow rate is captured by the model when mixed mode of convection is invoked. Flow reversal and wavy flow are predicted when natural convection and forced convection act in opposite directions in the battery. The effect of the presence of non-conducting material (PbO on anode) on the performance of SLRFB is studied using a simplified approach in the model. The study reveals the presence of charge coup de fouet phenomenon in charge cycle. The phenomenon as well as the predicted effect of depth of discharge on the magnitude of charge coup de fouet are confirmed experimentally.

Rapporten avhandlar en konceptstudie för omvandling av termisk energi till elektrisk samt mekanisk energi, i den autonoma undervattensfarkosten SAPPHIRES. Inledningsvis utreds vilka förväntningar och krav som finns på konceptet för energiomvandling samt om där finns någon publicerad litteratur som redan gjort ansträngningar för att lösa det aktuella problemet. Allmän teori kring värmemotorer och en bred, systematisk litteratursökning inkluderas även i det arbetet. Energiomvandlingen antas kunna ske enligt två fall kallade ”hög-prestanda” och ”låg/medel-prestanda”, vilka innebär att mekanisk samt elektrisk effekt, respektive endast elektrisk effekt ska kunna levereras av konceptet. De mekaniska samt elektriska effekterna ska, vidare, kunna levereras om maximalt 600, respektive 6 kW, och konceptet ska åtminstone kunna uppfylla ett av energiomvandlingsfallen. Den faktiska konceptstudien utgörs av två iterationer av konceptgenereringar, -utvärderingar och -val och de visar att ett koncept kallat ”Öppet system inspirerat av nukleär värmeframdrivning” förefaller vara det bästa sättet att omvandla termisk energi i SAPPHIRES. Därtill indikerar en mer detaljerad analys, bestående av bland annat matematisk modellering och konceptuell konstruktion, att konceptet möjligen skulle kunna uppfylla så kallad ”hög-prestanda” och sedermera leverera både mekanisk och elektrisk effekt om 600, respektive 6 kW. Mer specifikt visar en matematisk analys, med hjälp av vissa antaganden rörande konceptets funktion, att ett ”Öppet system inspirerat av nukleär värmeframdrivning” skulle kunna leverera en mekanisk effekt om 1025 kW samt en elektrisk effekt om 141 kW. En grov, konceptuell konstruktion bekräftar också att konceptets vitala, ingående komponenter faktiskt kan rymmas inom de specificerade dimensionskraven (en cylinderformad volym med en längd och diameter om 1,7, respektive 0,5 m.). Det står dock klart att de möjliga koncepten för energiomvandling kraftigt begränsas av deras möjligheter att leverera tillräcklig mekanisk effekt, för att uppnå ”hög-prestanda”. Om endast ”låg/medel-prestanda” ska uppfyllas tillåts fler av de möjliga koncepten och i ett sådant fall skulle faktorer som underhåll, miljöpåverkan och SAPPHIRES signatur kunna prioriteras i högre utsträckning. / The report discusses a concept study regarding the conversion of thermal energy into electrical and mechanical energy, in the autonomous underwater vehicle SAPPHIRES. First, the requirements and expectations regarding the concept of energy conversion are investigated and efforts are made to identify any published literature, which has already made attempts of solving the issue. General theory regarding heat engines and an extensive literature study are also included in this work. The energy conversion is assumed to perform according to two cases called "high-performance" and "low/medium-performance", meaning mechanical and electrical energy or electrical power should be delivered by the concept, respectively. More specifically, the mechanical and electrical powers should be delivered of a maximum of 600 and 6 kW, respectively and the concept should at least fulfill one of the performance settings. The actual concept study comprises of two iterations of concept generations, evaluations and selections and shows that a concept called "Open system inspired by nuclear thermal propulsion" seems to be the best way of converting thermal energy on-board SAPPHIRES. Moreover, a more detailed analysis, comprising of, inter alia, mathematical modelling and conceptual design, indicates that the concept possibly can meet the so-called "high-performance" and thus, deliver both mechanical and electrical powers of 600 and 6 kW, respectively. More specifically, a mathematical analysis, based on some assumptions regarding the concept's functionality, shows that an "Open system inspired by nuclear thermal propulsion" could deliver a mechanical power of 1025 kW and an electrical power of 141 kW. Rough conceptual design also shows that the vital parts of the concept could fit within the specified maximal dimensions (a cylinder-shaped volume with a length and diameter of 1.7 and 0.5 m, respectively). However, it is clear the possible concepts of energy conversion are severely limited by their capacities of delivering enough mechanical energy, to meet the "high-performance" demands. Assuming only the "low/medium-performance" has to be met, more possible concepts becomes available and in that case, factors such as maintenance, environmental impact and signature of SAPPHIRES could be considered to a greater extent.

Les Alliages à Mémoire de Forme Magnétiques (AMFM) sont des matériaux actifs qui présentent des comportements inhabituels par rapport aux matériaux " classiques ". Ils peuvent par exemple présenter de larges déformations réversibles sous l'action d'un champ magnétique ou sous une action mécanique. Ce sont des candidats potentiels pour des applications dans des domaines de pointe (automobile, aéronautique, spatial, etc.). Les AMFM présentent par ailleurs un avantage indéniable par rapport aux matériaux à mémoire de forme " thermique " en raison de leur réponse dynamique à haute fréquence. Il est bien connu que ces comportements sont dus à un couplage magnéto-mécanique et à un phénomène physique lié à l'orientation des variantes de martensite. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'analyser les comportements magnéto-mécaniques des AMFM. Pour ce faire, nous étudions expérimentalement et théoriquement, la réorientation martensitique dans les AMFM. Tout d'abord, une analyse énergétique en 2D/3D est proposée et intégrée dans des diagrammes d'état pour une étude systématique de la réorientation martensitique dans les AMFM sous chargements tridimensionnels quelconques. Ainsi, des critères de large déformation réversible sous des chargements cycliques sont obtenus. L'analyse énergétique montre que les AMFM, sollicités sous chargement multiaxiaux présentent plus d'avantages que ceux sollicités en 1D ; en particulier, on montre que l'état multiaxial permet d'augmenter (d'améliorer) la contrainte fonctionnelle, ce qui augmente le champ d'application des ces matériaux. Ensuite, afin de valider les prédictions de l'analyse énergétique, des expériences bi-axiales ont été effectuées sur des éprouvettes en AMFM. Les résultats révèlent que la dissipation intrinsèque et la déformation de transformation dues à la réorientation martensitique sont constantes dans tous les états de contraintes. De plus, les résultats ont permis de valider nos prédictions théoriques quant à l'augmentation de la contrainte fonctionnelle. Enfin, afin de prédire les comportements magnéto-mécaniques des AMFM sous des chargements multiaxiaux, un modèle tridimensionnel est développé dans le cadre de la thermodynamique des processus irréversibles avec liaison interne. Toutes les variantes de martensite ont été considérées et l'effet de température a également été pris en compte. Les simulations numériques montrent un très bon accord (rejoignent/confirment les résultats) avec les résultats expérimentaux existant dans la littérature. Le modèle a ensuite été programmé dans un code de calcul par éléments finis afin d'étudier les comportements non linéaires de flexion des poutres en AMFM. L'effet géométrique et l'effet d'anisotropie du matériau ont été systématiquement pris en compte.

With the advent of micro and nano electromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS), there has been rapid development in the design and fabrication of sensitive resonant sensors. Sensitivity of such devices depends on the resonant frequency and the quality factor (Q). The Q of these devices are dependent on process induced prestress in the structural geometry, interaction with the external environment, and the encapsulation method. For high frequency sensors operating in air and under encapsulation condition, the Q is dominated by structural and fluid-structure interaction losses. In this thesis, we set out to study the dominant energy dissipative mechanisms that are constituent of the experimentally observed loss (Q-factor) in two specific test geometries—uncapped and capped circular MEMS drumhead resonators. Considering the importance of various factors, we consider four important problems pertaining to the uncapped as well as capped resonators. In the first problem, the most important factors perhaps are the acoustic radiation losses emanating from the annular plate, and the effect of added mass effect on the natural frequencies of the annular plate. The second problem is to investigate the dominant contribution of squeeze film losses and acoustic radiation losses with respect to various natural frequencies of the annular plate. The third problem is to consider the effect of prestress on the natural frequencies of the annular plate and its associated fluid-structure interaction losses (quality factors due to squeeze film damping and acoustic radiation losses). The fourth problem is to study the dominant fluid-structure interaction losses and structural losses that are constituent of experimentally measured Q-factors of the encapsulated annular plate (conceptual representation of MEMS device under packaged conditions). In the first problem, we study the mode dependent acoustic radiation losses in an uncapped drumhead microresonator which is represented by a annular circular plate fixed at its outer edge, suspended over a fixed substrate. There are two main effects which are associated with such systems due to the fluid-structure interaction. First is the “added mass effect,” which reduces the effective resonance frequency of the structure. The second is the acoustic radiation loss from the top side of the resonator, that affects the quality factor of the vibrating structure. In deriving the analytical solution, we first obtain the exact mode shapes of the structure ignoring any effect of the surrounding fluid (air) on the mode shape. Subsequently, we use these mode shapes to study the effect of the surrounding fluid on the associated natural frequencies and the Q-factor. The effect of “added mass” on the frequencies of the structure is found to be negligible. However, the acoustic radiation losses found to be significant. Additionally, we found that the variation in Qac over the first few modes (< 40 MHz) is marked with a local maximum and a minimum. Beyond this range, Qac increases monotonically over the higher frequency modes. It is also found that such kind of variation can be described using different acoustics parameters. Finally, comparing the acoustics radiation loss based quality factor with the experimental results for the uncapped drumhead resonator, the acoustic damping dominates only at higher modes. Therefore, our second problem forms the basis of finding other fluid-related damping. In the second problem, we explore the fluid losses due to squeeze film damping in the uncapped drumhead micro resonator. In this case, the squeeze film loss is due to the flow of the fluid film between the bottom surface of the annular plate and the fixed substrate. Based on the literature survey, it is found that the squeeze film damping reduces with increase in the air-gap thickness and the operating frequencies respectively. However, the squeeze film effect can not be ignored at lower frequencies. In order to investigate the contribution of squeeze film damping in uncapped resonator, we determine squeeze-film damping based quality factor Qsq corresponding to different modes of the resonators using FEM based software, ANSYS. On comparing Qsq with the experiments, we found that Qsq matches well with the experiments corresponding to the lower modes. Therefore, it is found that Qsq dominates at low frequencies (< 20 MHz) and Qac plays significant role at high frequencies (> 40 MHz). Both types of damping should be considered while modeling the fluid damping in uncapped resonator. In the next study, we discuss the effects of prestress on the resonant frequencies and quality factor. In the third study, we discuss the applicability of thin-plate theory with prestress and membrane theory in computing the frequencies and quality factor due to acoustic and squeeze film losses in the uncapped drumhead resonator. In the first two studies, although the quality factor due to acoustic losses and the squeeze film captures the correct trend of the experimental results, there is a mismatch between the experimental and theoretical frequencies computed with added mass effect. In order to improve the computation of frequencies corresponding to measured modes, we first used membrane theory to predict the frequencies, and finally we quantify that there exists discrepancy between computed and the corresponding experimental frequencies with error of about 8–55%. Since, both the membrane as well as thin plate theory without prestress do not correctly model the frequencies, we used the thin plate theory with prestress. For a prestress level of 96 MPa, we found the match between the computed frequencies and the corresponding quality factors with the measured values. However, we also found that there exists strong dependence of prestress on the acoustic radiation loss, with decrease in the acoustic loss based quality factors with increase in the prestress level. In the subsequent problem, we focus on the computation of losses in capped drumhead resonator which leads to a design possibility of improving the quality factor by containing the acoustic radiation losses. In the fourth problem, we study the structural and fluid-structure interaction losses which are dominant constituent of net Q-factor observed in experiments due to encapsulation of uncapped drumhead resonator. Essentially, the geometry of the capped resonator constitutes upper and lower cavities subjected to fluid-structure interaction losses on both sides of the annular plate. The dominant fluid-structure interaction loss is found to be due to squeezing action acting simultaneously in the upper and lower cavities. However, as we go to the higher modes, squeeze film damping become very small and the damping due to structure related losses such as clamping and thermoelastic losses becomes significant. We found the thermoelastic damping to be the dominant source of structural damping at higher resonant modes, whereas, the clamping losses are found to be relatively smaller. Finally, on comparing the net quality factor with the experimental results, we observed that the squeeze film losses are dominant at lower frequencies, and thermoelastic losses dominate at the higher frequencies. However, there remains some discrepancy between theoretical and experimental Q-factors particularly over higher frequency range. Such discrepancy may be due to some unaccounted factors which may be explored to improve the modeling of damping in capped resonators. The emphasis of this work has been towards developing a comprehensive understanding of different dominant dissipative mechanisms, classified into the fluid-structure interaction and the structural losses, that are constituent of the Q-factor at various resonant modes of uncapped and capped drumhead resonators.