In this thesis the interaction of ultrashort laser pulses with metal nanostructures is investigated via two different phenomena: coherent acoustic oscillations of nanoparticles and generation of THz pulses on metal surfaces. Both of these effects rely on the collective oscillations of free conduction electrons in metal surfaces, plasmons. The field of plasmonics gained a great interest in the last twenty years due to the unique properties of these surface modes. It is the effects of the resonant response of plasmonic structures to incident electromagnetic wave, in particular, in visible and infrared bands and the concentration of the electromagnetic field in small subwavelength regions with significant enhancement of the incident field that make plasmonics so attractive for various applications, such as biochemical sensing, enhanced fluorescence, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, and second harmonic generation, amongst others. Investigation of the coherent particle vibrations is performed using the pump-probe technique which allows measurement of the transient transmission signals. The expansion and subsequent contraction of the nanoparticle following the ultrashort laser pulse excitation lead to a shift of the plasmon band which can be traced by transient spectroscopy. We have investigated the effect of the particle thickness on the frequency of the fundamental vibrational mode. In addition, we measured the vibrational particle response during the particle shape deformation, both symmetrical and asymmetrical. Exploration of the THz generation phenomena on plasmonic structures was performed using THz time-domain spectroscopy, the method which allows tracing of the generated THz field in the time-domain. We were able for the first time to measure the THz pulses generated from arrays of metal nanoparticles. Our observations verify the role of the particle plasmon mode in the generation of THz pulses. In addition, by exploring the dependence of the THz emission on the femtosecond pulse intensity we showed a high nonlinearity in the THz generation mechanism. The experimental results were assessed in the context of a recently proposed model where the THz radiation is generated via the acceleration of the ejected electrons by ponderomotive forces. To reveal another proposed mechanism of the THz generation from plasmonic structures, namely optical rectification, we investigated the THz generation and electron emission from the arrays of nanoparticles and nanoholes. Our results suggest that both mechanisms may contribute to generation of THz pulses from the same sample under different illumination conditions. In addition to periodic arrays of nanoparticles and nanoholes, THz generation from random metal-dielectric films was investigated. The microstructuring of such films allowed selective THz frequency generation which was explained by a model of dipole THz emitters. In addition, the effects of low temperature and pressure on the THz generation efficiency were investigated.

Nous avons utilisé une nouvelle méthode de photochimie laser pour la fabrication de microstructure 3D à base de nanofils métalliques. Les nanofils sont obtenus par photoréduction laser de sels métalliques dissous dans une matrice polymère. La réaction chimique est initiée par absorption à deux photons de photoréducteurs uniquement au point focal du laser. La géométrie des microstructures est obtenue en déplaçant le point focal du laser selon des trajectoires adaptées. Dans cette thèse nous avons étudié les propriétés optiques de structures à base de nanofils d'argent. Un nanofil qui occulte une onde plane crée un champ diffracté qui présente des trajectoires paraboliques de maximas et minimas d'intensité. Les calculs de Rayleigh-Sommerfeld montre que cette figure de diffraction typique correspond à l'inférence entre l'onde plane incidente et les ondes sphériques qui sont générées par diffraction sur les deux bords du nanofil. Lorsque les nanofils sont organisés en ensemble de nanofils parallèles distants de quelques microns, les champs diffractés donne des distributions d'intensité qui sont similaires à celles de microlentilles cylindriques. Dans ce cas l'interférence entre l'onde incidente et les ondes sphériques diffractées par les nanofils créée une distribution de phase quadratique qui est à l'origine de la focalisation. La fabrication de réseaux 2D de nanofils permet d'obtenir des réseaux de microlentilles très denses (10000x10000 DPI, dots per inch) qui ne sont pas réalisable avec des microlentilles réfractives. La possibilité de fabriquer des géométries 3D permet de manipuler les trajectoires des maxima et minima d'intensité pour obtenir de nouvelles fonctions diffractives à l'échelle microscopique. Par exemple, la fabrication de nanofils décalés dans l'espace nous a permis de développer un nouveau type de microdisposif optique qui permet la séparation spatiale des couleurs rouge, vert et bleu à l'échelle microscopique. / We used a novel method of laser photochemistry to fabricate 3D microstructures based on metallic nanowires. Nanowires are obtained by laser photoreduction of metallic salt dissolved in a polymer matrix. The chemical reaction is initiated by the two-photon absorption of a photoreductor only at laser focal point. The geometry of microstructures is obtained by moving laser focal point according to suitable trajectories. In this thesis, we have studied the optical properties of of structures based on silver nanowires. A nanowire that stops a plane wave creates a diffracted field which shows parabolic trajectories of maxima and minima intensities. Calculations based on Rayleigh-Sommerfeld diffraction show that this typical figure corresponds to interferences between the incident plane wave and spherical waves generated at the two nanowire edges. When nanowires are arranged into set of parallel nanowires, spaced by a few microns, their diffracted fields generate intensity distributions similar to those of cylindrical refractive microlenses. In that case interference between the incident wave and the diffracted wave leads to a quadrative phase which is the at origin of focalisation. Manufacturing 2D arrays of nanowires allow to achieve very dense arrays of microlenses (10000x10000 DPI, dots per inch), which are impossible to make with refractive microlenses. The possibility to make 3D geometry permit to manipulate maxima and minima intensity trajectories for new diffractive functions at the microscopic scale. For instance manufacturing nanowires shifted in space leads to a new type of optical microdevice that allows the spatial separation of colors red, green and blue at microscopic scale.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第22459号 / 工博第4720号 / 新制||工||1737(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科物質エネルギー化学専攻 / (主査)教授 作花 哲夫, 教授 安部 武志, 教授 阿部 竜 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

Title: SERS spectroscopy of model biomolecules for SERS biosensing Author: Martin Šubr Department: Institute of Physics of Charles University Supervisor: doc. RNDr. Marek Procházka, Dr., Institute of Physics of Charles University Abstract: The main requirement for surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based biomolecular sensing is high sensitivity and spectral reproducibility. For this purpose, ordered silver and gold nanostructures fabricated by magnetron sputtering and lithography methods at cooperating institutes were tested in this work. Reproducible SERS spectra of employed model biomolecules (amino acids, lysozyme and albumin) were obtained on ordered silver surfaces at concentrations 10-4 M - 10-6 M and as low as ≈ 10-7 M in the case of porphyrins. SERS spectra of certain biomolecules were also compared to spectra measured on silver colloid. The limit of detection provided by hydroxylamine-reduced silver colloid, using KCl as an aggregating agent, is substantially lower (on the order of 10-8 M for cysteine), but with lower spectral reproducibility. The main drawback of SERS spectra measured on silver surfaces was the occurrence of spurious bands resulting from the preparation procedure. In the case of sputter-deposited silver surfaces, it was found that keeping the substrates several hours in...

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The thesis is divided into two parts. The first part deals with the research work carried out on the synthesis and chemical modification of nanomaterials whereas the second part describes the preparation and characterisation of polymer films and their use as separation membranes. Part I of the thesis describing the synthetic strategies and chemical manipulation schemes employed on various types of nanomaterials is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 describes a chemist’s approach towards synthesizing and tuning the properties of different classes of nanomaterials along with a brief account of their potential applications. Chapter 2 of the thesis describes the synthesis and characterization of various metal nanostructures (viz. nanoparticles, nanorods, nanosheets etc.) of nickel, ruthenium, rhodium and iridium using a solvothermal procedure. Chapter 3 deals with the nanoparticles of the novel oxide metal ReO3. ReO3@Au, ReO3@Ag, ReO3@SiO2 and ReO3@TiO2 core-shell nanostructures with ReO3 as the core nanoparticle have been synthesized through a two-step process and characterized. Dependence of the plasmon band of the ReO3 nanoparticles on the interparticle separation has been examined by incorporating the nanoparticles in various polymer matrices and the results compared with those obtained with gold nanoparticles. Chapter 4 presents the dispersion of nanostructures of metal oxides such as TiO2, Fe3O4 and ZnO in solvents of differing polarity (water, DMF and toluene) in the presence of several surfactants. In Chapter 5 of the thesis, fluorous chemical method of separation of metallic and semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes is described. This method involves the selective reaction of the diazonium salt of a fluorous aniline with the metallic nanotubes in an aqueous medium and subsequent extraction of the same in a fluorous solvent leaving the semiconducting nanotubes in the aqueous layer. Chapter 6 presents the studies on the interaction of single walled nanotubes and graphene with various halogen molecules (I2, IBr, ICl and Br2) of varying electron affinity probed by employing Raman spectroscopy and electronic absorption spectroscopy. Part II of the thesis describes a general method of fabricating ultrathin free-standing cross-linked polymer films and their subsequent use as separation membranes. A particular class of 1-D nanomaterials namely cadmium hydroxide nanostrands were used in this method throughout, to generate a sacrificial layer upon which the polymer films were generated.

Functional nanomaterials are gaining attention due to their excellent shape and size dependent optical, electrical and catalytic properties. Synthesizing nanoparticles is no longer novel with the availability of a host of synthesis protocols for a variety of shapes and sizes of particles. What is currently needed is an understanding the fundamentals of shape and size controlled synthesis to produce functional nanomaterials that is simple and general. In addition to simple metallic nanostructures, synthesizing bimetallic and hybrid nanostructures are important for applications. Instead of trying to add functionality to the preformed nanomaterials, it is advantageous to look for cost effective and general synthetic protocols that can yield bimetallic, hybrid nanostructures along with the shape and size control. In this dissertation, a novel synthetic protocol for the synthesis of ultrfine single crystalline nanowires, metallic and bimetallic nanostructures and hybrid nanostructures has been investigated. The key point of the synthesis is that all different functional nanostructures are achieved by the use of noble metal intermediates in organic medium without phase transfer reagents. The roles of capping agents, oriented attachment and aggregation phenomenon have been studied in order to understand the formation mechanisms. Along with the synthesis, formation mechanisms, the optical and catalytic properties of the functional, noble metal, bimetallic and hybrid nanostructures have been studied. The entire thesis based on the results and findings obtained from the present investigation is organized as follows: Chapter I provides a general introduction to functional nanomaterials, their properties and some general applications, along with a brief description of conventional methods for size and shape-controlled synthesis. Chapter II deals with the materials and methods which essentially gives the information about the materials used for the synthesis and the techniques utilized to characterize the materials chosen for the investigation. Chapter III presents a novel method of for synthesizing noble metals nanostructures starting from an intermediate solid phase. The method involves the direct synthesis of noble metal intermediates in organic medium without the use of any phase transfer reagent. Controlled reduction of these intermediates leads to the formation of ultrafine nanocrystallite building blocks. Controlled aggregation of the nanocrystallites under different conditions leads to the formation of different nanostructures ranging from single crystalline nanowires to porous metallic clusters. In this chapter, the details of synthesis of the intermediate phase of gold are presented. This intermediate phase is the rocksalt phase of AuCl that has been experimentally realized for the first time. Manipulation of the AuCl nanocubes leads to the formation of a variety of nanostructures of Au starting from hollow cubes to extended porous structures. Mechanistic details of the formation of the intermediate and the nanostructures are presented in this chapter. Chapter IV deals with the symmetry breaking of an FCC metal (gold) by oriented attachment of metal nanoparticles by the preferential removal of capping agent from certain facets and followed by the attachment of gold nanoparticles along those bare facets. This kind of oriented attachment leads to the formation of 1D nanostructures with high aspect ratios. In this chapter, the synthesis, characterisation, formation mechanism and optical properties of high aspect ratio, molecular scale single crystalline gold nanowires has been described. This represent the first ever successful method to produce ultrafine 1D metallic nanostructures approaching molecular dimensions. Chapter V deals with the formation of hybrid nanostructures by attaching the cubic intermediate phase to a substrate like carbon nanotubes followed by the reduction of the attached intermediates on the tubes. The Pt intermediates have been synthesized and attached on the wall of functionalized CNTs and reduced. The PtCNT nanocomposites been characterized by several spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. The electrocatalytic activity of these nanocomposites towards the methanol oxidation has also been investigated. The composites exhibit high catalytic activity and good long term performance. The presence of functional groups on the CNT surface overcomes some of the limitations of current single metal catalysts that suffer from CO poisoning. Chapter VI deals with the formation of palladium nanostructures ranging from nanoparticles to hierarchical aggregates by controlled aggregation of nanoparticles in an organic medium that is tuned by the dielectric constant of the system. A crystalline intermediate of palladium salt has been synthesized and this intermediate of palladium has been used as the precursor solution for the synthesis of palladium nanostructures. The formation mechanism of the nanoporous Pd cluster is investigated using the modified DLVO approach. The catalytic efficiency of the Pd nanostructures has been investigated using the reduction of pnitrophenol and electrocatalytic hydrogen storage as model reactions. Chapter VII discusses the possibility of achieving functional bimetallic alloys by simultaneous reduction of the cubic intermediate of two different metals with experimental evidences. The synergistic effect of the two different metals gives rise to better catalytic activity. This chapter mainly deals with the synthesis of bimetallic porous nanoclusters of goldpalladium and goldplatinum in an organic medium. Detailed microstructural and spectroscopic characterisation of the bimetallic nanoclusters has been carried out and their electrocatalytic performance, morphological stability also investigated.

Nanoscience dominates almost all areas of science and technology in the 21st century. Nanoparticles are of fundamental interest since they possess unique size dependent properties (optical, electrical, mechanical, chemical, magnetic etc.), which are quite different from the bulk and the atomic state. The research work presented in the thesis is on the preparation, characterization and studies on Ir, Os and graphene oxide-based systems. Interconnected Ir and Os nanochains are prepared under environmentally friendly conditions in aqueous media and subsequently used as substrates for surface enhanced Raman scaterring studies and also as electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction and formaldehyde oxidation. Ir and IrOx nanostructures are prepared using borohydride at different temperatures. The nature of interaction of heme proteins with IrOx is studied using spectroscopic techniques. Electrochemical studies on reduced graphene oxide include sensing of biomolecules with high sensitivity and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in aqueous alkaline medium. rGO is also used as support for anchoring Ir nanoparticles and the catalyst is used for the oxidation of benzyl amines to corresponding imines. The thesis is divided in to seven chapters and details are given below. Chapter 1 gives an introduction about the synthetic strategies and properties of metal nanostructures. This is followed by literature survey on Ir, Os and graphene oxide-based systems relevant to the present study. Aim and scope of the present investigation is given at the end. Chapter 2 discusses the experimental procedures and characterization techniques used in the present study. Chapter 3 involves the preparation, characterization and studies on interconnected Ir nanochains. Assemblies of small sized nanoparticles forming network-like structures have attracted enormous interest and different metal nanoassemblies have been reported using different procedures. Ir3+ reduction is kinetically not a very favourable process and hence there are not many attempts to synthesize Ir-based nanostructures. Assemblies of interconnected Ir nanoparticles have been synthesized in the present studies using borohydride as reducing agent and ascorbic acid as capping agent, at high temperatures. Polyfunctional capping molecules such as ascorbic acid and vitamin P play important role for the formation of network- like Ir nanostructures. Optical properties of the networks are probed using UV-Vis spectroscopy and evolution of coupled plasmon of Ir nanochains at 418 nm (figure 1) is observed. The nanochains are used as substrates for SERS studies while the catalytic activity is followed for the reduction of nitroaromatics. Electrocatalytic activity of Ir nanochains is exemplified using oxygen reduction and formaldehyde oxidation. Ir nanochains show better electrocatalytic activities than nanoparticles as shown in figure 2. Figure 1. Time dependent UV-Vis absorption spectra of Ir nanoparticles recorded at various time intervals of (a) 5; (b) 15; (c) 30 and (d) 60 minutes of reduction of Ir3+ using borohydride and the corresponding TEM images. Figure 2. Polarization curves for oxygen reduction on (i) Ir nanochains and (ii) Ir nanoparticles in (A) 0.5 M H2SO4 and (B) 0.1 M KOH at a scan rate of 0.005 V/s. Rotation speed used is 1000 rpm. Chapter 4 discusses the preparation of Ir and IrOx using borohydride. The reaction temperature determines the product. Various physicochemical, microscopic and spectroscopic techniques have been used to understand the evolution of nanostructures. Borohydride reduces Ir3+ at high temperatures to form high surface area foams, while at 25oC, it results in an alkaline environment that helps in the hydrolysis of the Ir precursor to form IrOx nanoparticles. Porous IrOx is formed when Ir foams are annealed at high temperatures. Water oxidation has been demonstrated using IrOx nanoparticles and foams. Biocompatibility of IrOx is used to study the nature of interaction of heme proteins and the formation of bioconjugates using spectroscopic techniques. IrOx forms bioconjugates with substantial changes observed in secondary and tertiary structures of proteins. Chapter 5 explores the synthesis of interconnected ultrafine Os nanoclusters and the nanostructured materials are used as SERS substrates. Os nanochains are prepared under environmentally friendly conditions using polyfunctional molecules like ascorbic acid and vitamin P as both reducing agent and capping agent in aqueous media. Small sized (1-1.5 nm) Os nanoparticles spontaneously self-assemble to form clusters of few tens of nm that in turn self-organize to form branched nanochains of several microns in size. The as-formed nanochains show surface plasmon absorption in the visible region 540 nm which make them active substrates for surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) studies. High SERS activity is observed for fluorescent analyte, rhodamine 6G and non-fluorescent analyte, mercaptopyridine, with different laser excitation sources. Efficient energy transfer from fluorescent R6G dye to Os nanochains is observed based on steady state and time resolved fluorescence measurements.Figure 3. (I) Time dependent UV-Vis absorption spectra of Os nanochains recorded at different time intervals of (a) 5; (b) 7; (c) 15; (d) 30 and (e) 60 minutes. Inset shows the TEM images of Os nanochains after 60 minutes of reduction. (II) SERS spectra of 4-MPy adsorbed on Os nanochains from (a) 1 mM; (b) 10 µM and (c) 1 µM solutions using 514 nm laser excitation. Chapter 6 discusses the studies based on reduced graphene oxide. Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is explored as electrodes for simultaneous determination of dopamine (DA), ascorbic acid (AA) and uric acid (UA) at low concentrations useful in medical diagnostics (figure 4A). It is also used as metal-free electrocatalyst for ORR (figure 4B). The use of rGO as a support for anchoring Ir nanoparticles is probed and subsequently the Ir/rGO is used as catalyst for direct aerobic oxidation of benzyl amine derivatives to corresponding imines. Chapter 7 describes the summary of the work and scope for further studies. Appendix 1 discusses the preparation of different Ir nanostructures using simple galvanic displacement reaction on copper foil while appendix 2 describes the preparation of different sized Ir nanoparticles and their electrocatalytic activity towards oxygen reduction reaction

Les mésophases hexagonales sont des systèmes quaternaires formés de tensioactifs et co-tensioactifs, eau salée et huile. Ces mésophases sont utilisées comme moules « mous » pour la synthèse de différents nanomatériaux tels que des nanostructures métalliques poreuses, des nanostructures de polymères conjugués et des nanocomposites métalliques-polymères. Contrairement aux matrices (ou moules) durs, qui nécessitent des réactifs chimiques corrosifs pour extraire les nanomatériaux synthétisés in situ, le processus d'extraction des nanomatériaux synthétisés dans les mésophases hexagonales est simple : les nanomatériaux peuvent être extraits simplement par lavage avec de l'éthanol ou du 2-propanol. Un autre intérêt à utiliser ces mésophases comme matrice de synthèse est qu’elles peuvent être gonflées en contrôlant le rapport huile / eau. Cette thèse est divisée en trois parties: 1) La synthèse de nanostructures métalliques poreuses dans la phase aqueuse des mésophases hexagonales et leur application dans les piles à combustible (oxydation de l'éthanol), 2) La synthèse de nanostructures de polymères conjugués dans la phase huile des mésophases hexagonales pour des applications en photocatalyse et en particulier pour la dégradation de polluants, 3) La synthèse combinée dans les phases huile et eau des mésophases hexagonales de nanocomposites métal-polymère. Plusieurs nanostructures métalliques telles que des nanoballes PdPt de porosité et composition contrôlées, des nanostructures poreuses cœur-coquille AuPd et AuPt, bimetalliques PtNi et trimétalliques AuPdPt ont été synthétisées par radiolyse dans la phase aqueuse des mésophases hexagonales. Les nanoballes PdPt de porosité et composition contrôlées ont été utilisées comme électro-catalyseurs pour l'oxydation de l'éthanol. L'effet de la taille des pores sur la surface électro-active des nanostructures métalliques et leur activité électrocatalytique pour l'oxydation de l'éthanol a été étudié. Les nanostructures poreuses cœur-coquille bimétalliques AuPd et AuPt, et trimétalliques AuPdPt ont été utilisées pour l'oxydation de l'éthanol et du glucose. Les nanoballes poreuses PtNi ont été utilisées pour l'évolution de H2 et la réaction de réduction de l’oxygène. Des nanostructures de polymères conjugués (poly(3-hexylthiophène), P3HT) ont été synthétisées dans la phase huile des mésophases hexagonales. Ces nanostructures de polymères ont une activité photocatalytique élevée sous UV et lumière visible. Le phénol et la rhodamine B ont été utilisés comme polluants modèles. Ces photocatalyseurs sont très stables même après plusieurs cycles photocatalytiques. L'ajout de molécules capteurs et l’étude du mécanisme montrent que les radicaux O2.− sont les principaux radicaux responsables de la dégradation du phénol. De manière très intéressante, l'activité photocatalytique de ces nanostructures de P3HT est fortement augmentée lorsqu'elles sont supportées sur une surface solide. Ce résultat ouvre de nouvelles perspectives pour des applications dans des réacteurs photocatalytiques et des surfaces autonettoyantes. Des résultats préliminaires sur la synthèse des nanocomposites Pt-PDPB (polydiphenylbutadiyne) sont également présentés dans cette thèse. / Soft hexagonal mesophases, which consist of quaternary systems (surfactants, brine, oil, and co-surfactant) are used as templates for the synthesis of different nanomaterials such as metal nanostructures, conjugated polymer nanostructures, and metal-polymer nanocomposites. Unlike hard templates, which need a harsh chemical reagent to extract nanomaterials after the synthesis, in soft template hexagonal mesophases, the extraction process of nanomaterials is simple, only by washing with ethanol or 2-propanol. Another interesting property of this class of template lies on its ability to be swollen by controlling the ratio of oil to water.This thesis is divided into three parts: 1) Radiolytic synthesis of metal nanostructures in the aqueous phase of hexagonal mesophases and their application in fuel cells (ethanol oxidation), 2) Synthesis of conjugated polymer nanostructures in the oil phase of hexagonal mesophases for photocatalytic degradation of pollutants, 3) Combined synthesis in the oil and water phases of hexagonal mesophases of metal-polymer nanocomposites.Several metal nanostructures such as PdPt nanoballs with controlled composition and porosity, AuPd and AuPt core shell, bimetallic PtNi and trimetallic AuPdPt porous nanoballs were synthesized by radiolysis in the aqueous phase of hexagonal mesophases. PdPt nanoballs with controlled porosity and composition were used as electrocatalysts for ethanol oxidation. The effect of the pore size on their electro active surface and their electrocatalytic activity towards ethanol oxidation were studied. AuPd and AuPt core-shell, and trimetallic AuPdPt porous nanoballs were used for ethanol and glucose oxidation. PtNi porous nanoballs were used for H2 evolution and oxygen reduction reaction. Conjugated polymer nanostructures namely P3HT (poly(3-hexylthiophene)) were synthesized in the oil phase of hexagonal mesophases. These polymer nanostructures are highly active for photocatalysis under UV and visible light. Phenol and rhodamine B were used as model pollutants. These photocatalysts are very stable even after repeated cycling. Addition of scavengers and mechanistic studies show that O2.− is the main radical responsible for degradation of phenol. Most interestingly, the photocatalytic activity of these P3HT nanostructures is highly enhanced when they are supported on a solid surface opening new perspectives in photocatalytic reactors and self-cleaning surfaces. Premiminary results on the synthesis of Pt-PDPB (polydiphenylbutadiyne) nanocomposites are also presented in this thesis.