Neuropatia é a complicação mais comum e mais debilitante da Diabetes Mellitus, a longo prazo presente em mais de 50% dos pacientes que possuem a doença. A hiperglicemia induz estresse oxidativo nos neurônios de diabéticos acarretando a ativação de múltiplas vias bioquímicas, as quais são potenciais alvos terapêuticos para a neuropatia diabética. Está claro que compostos carbonil reativos são mediadores glicotóxicos do estresse oxidativo através da formação de produtos finais de glicação avançada como resultado direto da hiperglicemia. Metilglioxal e glicolaldeído são compostos carbonil reativos inevitavelmente produzidos pelo metabolismo, os quais são encontrados em maior quantidade em situações de hiperglicemia. Recentemente, tem sido dada muita atenção para o envolvimento de espécies reativas na toxicidade do metilglioxal e do glicolaldeído, e tem-se demonstrado que essas glicotoxinas têm potencial para induzir estresse oxidativo, parar o crescimento celular e promover morte por apoptose ou necrose. O metilglioxal e o glicolaldeído interagem com grupamentos sulfidril de moléculas de glutationa e de enzimas, inibindo sua atividade; entretanto, os mecanismos moleculares relacionados aos efeitos tóxicos dessas glicotoxinas e as vias pelas quais elas levam a formação de espécies reativas não estão completamente elucidados. Neste estudo nós buscamos esclarecer a relação entre o metabolismo do metilglioxal e do glicolaldeído e a produção de espécies reativas, e investigamos as possíveis rotas de morte celular envolvidas. Utilizamos a linhagem celular de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y diferenciada, pois este é um modelo neuronal bem caracterizado para estudos de compostos neurotóxicos. Nós avaliamos a produção de espécies reativas induzida por metilglioxal e glicolaldeído através da técnica da diclorofluoresceína, e avaliamos, também, seus efeitos sob o conteúdo de glutationa celular. Além disso, investigamos a ativação das caspase-3, -8 e -9 e a contribuição de diferentes sistemas peroxidases (glutationa-redutase e a tioredoxina-redutase), na defesa neuronal contra essas glicotoxinas. Como resultados encontramos que o tratamento com ambas glicotoxinas rapidamente provocou um aumento na produção de espécies reativas e diminuição do conteúdo de glutationa, com concomitante ativação das caspases-8 e -9 e, posteriormente, também houve ativação da caspase-3 pelo tratamento com metilglioxal. Vimos que a tioredoxina-redutase possui um papel mais importante na defesa celular contra a toxicidade do metilglioxal do que contra o glicolaldeído, enquanto que a glutationa-redutase tem papel semelhante na defesa celular contra ambas glicotoxinas. Nossos resultados demonstraram que o estresse oxidativo é um importante mecanismo da toxicidade do metilglioxal e do glicolaldeído nas células diferenciadas SHSY5Y e, que enzimas redutoras de grupamentos sulfidril contribuem de diferentes formas na defesa celular contra cada uma dessas glicotoxinas. / Neuropathy is the most common and debilitating complication of Diabetes Mellitus present in more than 50% of the patients with long-standing disease. Hyperglycemia induces oxidative stress in neurons from diabetic patients and results in activation of multiple biochemical pathways. These activated pathways are a major source of damage and are potential therapeutic targets in diabetic neuropathy. A large body of evidence has implicated reactive carbonyl compounds as glycotoxic mediators of oxidative stress by forming advanced glycation endproducts as a direct result of hyperglycemia. Methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde are reactive carbonil compounds inevitably produced by the metabolism, but they are found in increased rates under hyperglycemia condition. Recently, the attention has been focused on the involvement of reactive species in methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde toxicities, resulting in oxidative stress and leading to cell growth arrest, apoptotic or necrosis death. These glycotoxins interact with sulfhydryl-groups of glutathione molecules enzymes, inhibiting their activity; however, the molecular mechanism underlying methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde cytotoxic effects and reactive species generation are not fully understood. In this study we have pursued to establish the role of methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde metabolisms and reactive species production, and have looked for the possible death routes involved with the toxic effects of these glycotoxins. Here we used the differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells as neuronal experimental model to investigate the pathological effects of various neurotoxic compounds. We have evaluated the methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde capacity to reactive species generation by dichlorofluorescein assay and their effects upon cellular glutathione content. Also, we have assessed the caspase-3, -8 and -9 activation and the contribution of different peroxidases systems (glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase) in the neuronal defense against methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde cytotoxicities. We found that both glycotoxins promptly provoke reactive species generation and decrease the cell glutathione content, as well induce caspase-8 and -9 activation. Later caspase-3 activation was found in methylglyoxal treatment. We demonstrate that thioredoxin reductase has a most important role in cell defense against methylglyoxal toxicity than against glycolaldehyde, meanwhile there is no difference in the glutathione reductase role. Our results show that oxidative stress is an important mechanism in the methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde toxicities and sulfhydryl reductases contributes differently in the cellular defense against these glycotoxins.

Neuropatia é a complicação mais comum e mais debilitante da Diabetes Mellitus, a longo prazo presente em mais de 50% dos pacientes que possuem a doença. A hiperglicemia induz estresse oxidativo nos neurônios de diabéticos acarretando a ativação de múltiplas vias bioquímicas, as quais são potenciais alvos terapêuticos para a neuropatia diabética. Está claro que compostos carbonil reativos são mediadores glicotóxicos do estresse oxidativo através da formação de produtos finais de glicação avançada como resultado direto da hiperglicemia. Metilglioxal e glicolaldeído são compostos carbonil reativos inevitavelmente produzidos pelo metabolismo, os quais são encontrados em maior quantidade em situações de hiperglicemia. Recentemente, tem sido dada muita atenção para o envolvimento de espécies reativas na toxicidade do metilglioxal e do glicolaldeído, e tem-se demonstrado que essas glicotoxinas têm potencial para induzir estresse oxidativo, parar o crescimento celular e promover morte por apoptose ou necrose. O metilglioxal e o glicolaldeído interagem com grupamentos sulfidril de moléculas de glutationa e de enzimas, inibindo sua atividade; entretanto, os mecanismos moleculares relacionados aos efeitos tóxicos dessas glicotoxinas e as vias pelas quais elas levam a formação de espécies reativas não estão completamente elucidados. Neste estudo nós buscamos esclarecer a relação entre o metabolismo do metilglioxal e do glicolaldeído e a produção de espécies reativas, e investigamos as possíveis rotas de morte celular envolvidas. Utilizamos a linhagem celular de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y diferenciada, pois este é um modelo neuronal bem caracterizado para estudos de compostos neurotóxicos. Nós avaliamos a produção de espécies reativas induzida por metilglioxal e glicolaldeído através da técnica da diclorofluoresceína, e avaliamos, também, seus efeitos sob o conteúdo de glutationa celular. Além disso, investigamos a ativação das caspase-3, -8 e -9 e a contribuição de diferentes sistemas peroxidases (glutationa-redutase e a tioredoxina-redutase), na defesa neuronal contra essas glicotoxinas. Como resultados encontramos que o tratamento com ambas glicotoxinas rapidamente provocou um aumento na produção de espécies reativas e diminuição do conteúdo de glutationa, com concomitante ativação das caspases-8 e -9 e, posteriormente, também houve ativação da caspase-3 pelo tratamento com metilglioxal. Vimos que a tioredoxina-redutase possui um papel mais importante na defesa celular contra a toxicidade do metilglioxal do que contra o glicolaldeído, enquanto que a glutationa-redutase tem papel semelhante na defesa celular contra ambas glicotoxinas. Nossos resultados demonstraram que o estresse oxidativo é um importante mecanismo da toxicidade do metilglioxal e do glicolaldeído nas células diferenciadas SHSY5Y e, que enzimas redutoras de grupamentos sulfidril contribuem de diferentes formas na defesa celular contra cada uma dessas glicotoxinas. / Neuropathy is the most common and debilitating complication of Diabetes Mellitus present in more than 50% of the patients with long-standing disease. Hyperglycemia induces oxidative stress in neurons from diabetic patients and results in activation of multiple biochemical pathways. These activated pathways are a major source of damage and are potential therapeutic targets in diabetic neuropathy. A large body of evidence has implicated reactive carbonyl compounds as glycotoxic mediators of oxidative stress by forming advanced glycation endproducts as a direct result of hyperglycemia. Methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde are reactive carbonil compounds inevitably produced by the metabolism, but they are found in increased rates under hyperglycemia condition. Recently, the attention has been focused on the involvement of reactive species in methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde toxicities, resulting in oxidative stress and leading to cell growth arrest, apoptotic or necrosis death. These glycotoxins interact with sulfhydryl-groups of glutathione molecules enzymes, inhibiting their activity; however, the molecular mechanism underlying methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde cytotoxic effects and reactive species generation are not fully understood. In this study we have pursued to establish the role of methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde metabolisms and reactive species production, and have looked for the possible death routes involved with the toxic effects of these glycotoxins. Here we used the differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells as neuronal experimental model to investigate the pathological effects of various neurotoxic compounds. We have evaluated the methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde capacity to reactive species generation by dichlorofluorescein assay and their effects upon cellular glutathione content. Also, we have assessed the caspase-3, -8 and -9 activation and the contribution of different peroxidases systems (glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase) in the neuronal defense against methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde cytotoxicities. We found that both glycotoxins promptly provoke reactive species generation and decrease the cell glutathione content, as well induce caspase-8 and -9 activation. Later caspase-3 activation was found in methylglyoxal treatment. We demonstrate that thioredoxin reductase has a most important role in cell defense against methylglyoxal toxicity than against glycolaldehyde, meanwhile there is no difference in the glutathione reductase role. Our results show that oxidative stress is an important mechanism in the methylglyoxal and glycolaldehyde toxicities and sulfhydryl reductases contributes differently in the cellular defense against these glycotoxins.

Peroxinitrito é um potente agente oxidante, nitrante e nucleofilico formado in vivo pela reação difusional do radical ânion superóxido com óxido nítrico, cuja produção exacerbada em situações de estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo pode resultar em danos a biomoléculas e estruturas sub-celulares. Por outro lado, vários compostos carbonílicos reativos tais como acroleína e compostos α-dicarbonílicos são descritos como citotóxicos e genotóxicos, pois reagem com biomoléculas aminadas resultando em perda de funções nativas, situação esta denominada de \"estresse carbonílico\". Dentre os metabólitos α-dicarbonílicos, altamente suscetíveis a adições nucleofílicas, destacam-se o biacetilo, derivado do metabolismo hepático de etanol e contaminante de alimentos, e metilglioxal e glioxal, ambos catabólitos de glicose, proteínas e lipídios acumulados em doenças relacionadas ao envelhecimento. Neste trabalho, observou-se que, em tampão fosfato normalmente aerado de pH próximo à neutralidade, (i) estes três compostos sofrem adição nucleofílica de peroxinitrito com constantes de velocidade de segunda ordem uma a três ordens de grandeza acima dos valores relatados para compostos monocarbonílicos (k2 ≈ 4-100 M-1s-1); (ii) os sistemas biacetilo ou metilglioxal/peroxinitrito consomem o oxigênio dissolvido com produção de acetato ou acetato e formiato, respectivamente, via radical acetila capaz de acetilar histidina, lisina e 2\'-desoxiguanosina se adicionados à mistura reacional; e (iii) o sistema glioxal/peroxinitrito gera sucessivamente radical formila e radical formilhidroperoxila, cujo desproporcionamento a formiato e gás carbônico é acompanhado da emissão de luz no infra-vermelho próximo (λmax = 1270 nm), atribuída a oxigênio molecular no estado singlete (O21Δg) (Reação de Russell). Estes estudos evidenciam que a reação de metabólitos α-dicarbonílicos com peroxinitrito gera radicais livres e embasam a hipótese de que possam contribuir para a acetilação radicalar, não-enzimática intracelular, de proteínas (epigenética) e DNA, portanto potencialmente implicadas na fisiologia e patologia do envelhecimento e desordens metabólicas, nas quais a participação de espécies reativas de oxigênio, nitrogênio e compostos carbonílicos foi relatada. Deve-se ainda notar que a descoberta de acetilação radicalar de biomoléculas por metabólitos α-dicarbonilicos e peroxinitrito prepara o caminho para a identificação de novas reações químicas de biomoléculas, não catalisadas por enzimas, que possam eventualmente revelar novos biomarcadores teciduais em doenças adquiridas e inatas. / Peroxynitrite is a strong biological oxidant, nitrating and nucleophilic agent, formed by the diffusion-controlled reaction of the superoxide anion radical with nitric oxide, whose exacerbated production in oxidative and nitrosative stress leads to chemical damage to biomolecules and sub-cellular structures. On the other hand, various reactive carbonyl compounds like acrolein and α-dicarbonyls are reportedly cytotoxic and genotoxic for their ability to react with amino biomolecules resulting in loss of native functions, a situation named \"carbonyl stress\". Among very reactive α-dicarbonyls highly prone to nucleophilic additions, we highlight biacetyl, a hepatic alcohol metabolite and food contaminant, and methylglyoxal and glyoxal, both catabolites of glucose, proteins and lipids that accumulate in ageing-related disorders. Here, we report that, in normally aerated phosphate buffer near the physiological pH, (i) these three dicarbonyls undergo nucleophilic addition of peroxynitrite whose second order rate constants are one to three orders of magnitude than those documented for monocarbonyls (k2 ≈ 4-100 M-1s-1); (ii) the biacetyl or methylglyoxal/peroxynitrite systems consume the dissolved oxygen yielding the acetate anion or acetate plus formate anion, respectively, from acetyl radical intermediate which was found to acetylate added histidine, lysine and 2\'-deoxyguanosine; and (iii) the glyoxal/peroxynitrite system ultimately generate formyl radical and formylperoxyl radical, whose dismutation to formate and carbonic oxide is accompanied by near infrared monomol emission (λmax = 1270 nm) characteristic of singlet molecular oxygen (O21Δg) (Russell reaction). Our studies strongly attest that the reaction of α-dicarbonyls with peroxynitrite release free radicals that can potentially contribute for the radical, non-enzymatic acetylation of proteins (epigenetics) and DNA bases possibly implicated in the ageing physiopathology and metabolic disorders, where participation of reactive oxygen, nitrogen and carbonyl species is well recognized. Also noteworthy is that our findings may pave the way to the discovery of novel biochemical reactions whose products can eventually be useful as biomarkers of acquired and innate maladies.

Danos induzidos por hiperglicemia em tecidos no diabetes são caracterizados por quatro mecanismos conectados: aumento do fluxo metabólico através da via do poliol, ativação da proteína quinase C (PKC), aumento da atividade da via das hexosaminas e aumento da produção intracelular dos precursores dos produtos finais de glicação avançada (AGEs). Entre eles, os derivados de metilglioxal, um potente agente de modificação de proteínas e DNA, têm sido associados a complicações microvasculares no diabetes: nefropatia, retinopatia e neuropatia. O metilglioxal é produzido a partir das trioses fosfato, acetona e aminoacetona, um catabólito de treonina e glicina, gerado na matriz mitocondrial. A aminoacetona sofre oxidação enzimática, catalisada por aminoxidase sensível a semicarbazida (SSAO), ou química, catalisada por íons de cobre e ferro, produzindo metilglioxal, H2O2 e NH4 +. Sabendo que metilglioxal e H2O2 são capazes de induzir apoptose e/ou necrose em células produtoras de insulina (RINm5f) propomos uma possível atividade pró-oxidante da aminoacetona sobre células beta do pâncreas. O tratamento destas linhagens com aminoacetona/Cu(II) aumentou a morte celular, fluxo de Ca2+ intracelular, produção de NO, fragmentação do DNA, depleção dos níveis de glutationa reduzida (GSH), expressão gênica da proteína apoptótica Bax, enzimas antioxidantes - glutationa peroxidase (GPx), glutationa redutase (GRd), catalase e isoformas de superóxido dismutases (CuZnSOD e MnSOD) - e óxido nítrico sintase induzida (iNOS). Embora as concentrações normais e patológicas da aminoacetona, provavelmente seja muito menores que as usadas nos experimentos, sugerimos que, em tecidos de diabéticos, um acúmulo da aminoacetona em longo prazo pode conduzir a danos oxidativos e eventualmente morte das células beta do pâncreas / Tissue damages induced by hyperglycemia in diabetics are characterized by four linked mechanisms: increased flux through the polyol pathway, protein kinase C (PKC) activation, increased hexosamine pathway activity and intracellular production of advanced glycation end product (AGE) precursors. The production of AGEs by modifying proteins and DNA agent, such as methylglyoxal, has been implicated in microvascular complications in diabetes: nephropathy, retinopathy and neuropathy. Methylglyoxal is putatively produced in vivo from trioses phosphate, acetone and aminoacetone, a catabolite of threonine and glycine synthesized in the mitochondrial matrix. Aminoacetone has been reported to undergo semicarbazide sensitive amine oxidase- catalyzed and copper- and iron-catalyzed oxidations by molecular oxygen to methylglyoxal, NH4 + ion and H2O2. Considering that methylglyoxal and H2O2 have been found to promote apoptosis/necrosis to insulin-producing cells (RINm5f), we propose a possible pro-oxidant role of aminoacetone in pancreatic beta-cells. Treatment of RINm5f cells with aminoacetone plus Cu(II) ion promotes an increase of non-viable cells, influx of Ca2+ ions, NO production, DNA fragmentation, depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, and increased mRNA expression of pro-apoptotic protein (Bax), antioxidant enzymes - glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GRd), MnSOD, CuZnSOD and catalase - and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Although both normal and pathological concentrations of aminoacetone are probably much lower than those used here, it is tempting to propose that excess aminoacetone in diabetic patients, at long term, may drive oxidative damage and eventually death of pancreatic beta-cells

No description available.

Furosin entsteht bei der Salzsäurehydrolyse aus den Amadori-Produkten des Lysins und wird als Marker für den Fortschritt der frühen Maillard-Reaktion, zur Beurteilung von lebensmitteltechnologischen Prozessen sowie zur Berechnung des verfügbaren und des nicht verfügbaren Lysins in Lebensmitteln verwendet. Für die Nutzung von Furosin als Qualitätsparameter ist die reproduzierbare und konstante Bildung während der Salzsäurehydrolyse entscheidend. Dies wird in der Literatur jedoch kontrovers diskutiert. Im ersten Abschnitt dieser Arbeit galt es deshalb, die molaren Ausbeuten an Furosin und den weiteren Hydrolyseprodukten Lysin, Pyridosin und N[epsilon]-Carboxymethyl-lysin zu bestimmen und damit eine sichere Interpretation der Ergebnisse zu ermöglichen. Dazu wurden peptid-gebundene Amadori-Produkte des N[alpha]-Hippuryl-lysins in chromatographisch reiner Form dargestellt. Weiterhin wurden N[alpha]-Hippuryl-N[epsilon]-carboxymethyl-lysin und Pyridosin als Standard gewonnen. Bei den Hydrolyseexperimenten zeigten die Fructosyl-Amadori-Produkte ein ähnliches Verhalten. Nach Hydrolyse mit 6M Salzsäure wurden molare Ausbeuten an Furosin von 32% für Fructosyl-lysin und jeweils 34% für Lactulosyl- und Maltulosyl-lysin bestimmt. Signifikant höhere Ausbeuten an Furosin waren nach Hydrolyse mit 8M Salzsäure festzustellen, 46% für Fructosyl-lysin, 50% für Lactulosyl-lysin und 51% für Maltulosyl-lysin. Im Gegensatz zu den Fructosyl-Derivaten war die molare Ausbeute an Furosin bei Tagatosyl-lysin unabhängig von der verwendeten Salzsäurekonzentration (6 bis 8M) und wurde zu 42% bestimmt. Anhand der auf Basis der molaren Ausbeuten ermittelten Überführungsfaktoren kann nun erstmals die Lysin-Derivatisierung mittels der Analytik von Furosin sicher bestimmt werden. Das ermöglicht exakte Aussagen zum Fortschritt nichtenzymatischer Glykierungsreaktionen sowohl in Lebensmittel als auch in vivo. Aufgrund der Relevanz für biologische Systeme und für Lebensmittel wurden weiterhin Reaktionen von alpha-Dicarbonylverbindungen mit kurzkettigen Peptiden und dem Protein Insulin unter physiologischen Bedingungen (pH=7,4 und 37°C) untersucht. Bei der Reaktion von Glyoxal mit ausgewählten Tripeptiden wurde eine sehr schnelle Derivatisierung der Peptide und jeweils die gleichzeitige Bildung eines definierten Produktes festgestellt. Mittels nuklearmagnetischer Resonanzspektroskopie und massenspektroskopischer Analyse konnten die Produkte zweifelsfrei, jeweils als die am N-Terminus durch einen 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Ring modifizierten Peptide, aufgeklärt werden. Das Hauptprodukt der Reaktion von Methylglyoxal mit dem Peptid Gly-Ala-Phe wurde ebenfalls als 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Peptid aufgeklärt. Nach Inkubation von Insulin mit Glyoxal unter physiologischen Bedingungen in verdünnter Lösung konnte weiterhin gezeigt werden, dass die 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Bildung ebenfalls an einem Protein erfolgt. Die identifizierten N-terminalen 2(1H)-Pyrazinone weisen charakteristische UV-Absorptions- sowie Fluoreszenz-Spektren auf. Um die Reaktivität des N-Terminus und damit die Bedeutung der 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Bildung beurteilen zu können, wurden vergleichende Studien mit dem als Hauptreaktionspartner für alpha-Dicarbonylverbindungen angesehenen Arginin durchgeführt. Bei diesen Experimenten zeigte der N-Terminus und peptidgebundenes Arginin eine nahezu identische Reaktivität. Auf Grund dieser Ergebnisse ist fest davon auszugehen, dass es sich bei den identifizierten N-terminalen 2(1H)-Pyrazinonen um eine neue Klasse von sogenannten Advanced Glycation Endproducts (AGEs) mit Bedeutung in physiologischen Systemen und in Lebensmitteln handelt.

Furosin entsteht bei der Salzsäurehydrolyse aus den Amadori-Produkten des Lysins und wird als Marker für den Fortschritt der frühen Maillard-Reaktion, zur Beurteilung von lebensmitteltechnologischen Prozessen sowie zur Berechnung des verfügbaren und des nicht verfügbaren Lysins in Lebensmitteln verwendet. Für die Nutzung von Furosin als Qualitätsparameter ist die reproduzierbare und konstante Bildung während der Salzsäurehydrolyse entscheidend. Dies wird in der Literatur jedoch kontrovers diskutiert. Im ersten Abschnitt dieser Arbeit galt es deshalb, die molaren Ausbeuten an Furosin und den weiteren Hydrolyseprodukten Lysin, Pyridosin und N[epsilon]-Carboxymethyl-lysin zu bestimmen und damit eine sichere Interpretation der Ergebnisse zu ermöglichen. Dazu wurden peptid-gebundene Amadori-Produkte des N[alpha]-Hippuryl-lysins in chromatographisch reiner Form dargestellt. Weiterhin wurden N[alpha]-Hippuryl-N[epsilon]-carboxymethyl-lysin und Pyridosin als Standard gewonnen. Bei den Hydrolyseexperimenten zeigten die Fructosyl-Amadori-Produkte ein ähnliches Verhalten. Nach Hydrolyse mit 6M Salzsäure wurden molare Ausbeuten an Furosin von 32% für Fructosyl-lysin und jeweils 34% für Lactulosyl- und Maltulosyl-lysin bestimmt. Signifikant höhere Ausbeuten an Furosin waren nach Hydrolyse mit 8M Salzsäure festzustellen, 46% für Fructosyl-lysin, 50% für Lactulosyl-lysin und 51% für Maltulosyl-lysin. Im Gegensatz zu den Fructosyl-Derivaten war die molare Ausbeute an Furosin bei Tagatosyl-lysin unabhängig von der verwendeten Salzsäurekonzentration (6 bis 8M) und wurde zu 42% bestimmt. Anhand der auf Basis der molaren Ausbeuten ermittelten Überführungsfaktoren kann nun erstmals die Lysin-Derivatisierung mittels der Analytik von Furosin sicher bestimmt werden. Das ermöglicht exakte Aussagen zum Fortschritt nichtenzymatischer Glykierungsreaktionen sowohl in Lebensmittel als auch in vivo. Aufgrund der Relevanz für biologische Systeme und für Lebensmittel wurden weiterhin Reaktionen von alpha-Dicarbonylverbindungen mit kurzkettigen Peptiden und dem Protein Insulin unter physiologischen Bedingungen (pH=7,4 und 37°C) untersucht. Bei der Reaktion von Glyoxal mit ausgewählten Tripeptiden wurde eine sehr schnelle Derivatisierung der Peptide und jeweils die gleichzeitige Bildung eines definierten Produktes festgestellt. Mittels nuklearmagnetischer Resonanzspektroskopie und massenspektroskopischer Analyse konnten die Produkte zweifelsfrei, jeweils als die am N-Terminus durch einen 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Ring modifizierten Peptide, aufgeklärt werden. Das Hauptprodukt der Reaktion von Methylglyoxal mit dem Peptid Gly-Ala-Phe wurde ebenfalls als 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Peptid aufgeklärt. Nach Inkubation von Insulin mit Glyoxal unter physiologischen Bedingungen in verdünnter Lösung konnte weiterhin gezeigt werden, dass die 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Bildung ebenfalls an einem Protein erfolgt. Die identifizierten N-terminalen 2(1H)-Pyrazinone weisen charakteristische UV-Absorptions- sowie Fluoreszenz-Spektren auf. Um die Reaktivität des N-Terminus und damit die Bedeutung der 2(1H)-Pyrazinon-Bildung beurteilen zu können, wurden vergleichende Studien mit dem als Hauptreaktionspartner für alpha-Dicarbonylverbindungen angesehenen Arginin durchgeführt. Bei diesen Experimenten zeigte der N-Terminus und peptidgebundenes Arginin eine nahezu identische Reaktivität. Auf Grund dieser Ergebnisse ist fest davon auszugehen, dass es sich bei den identifizierten N-terminalen 2(1H)-Pyrazinonen um eine neue Klasse von sogenannten Advanced Glycation Endproducts (AGEs) mit Bedeutung in physiologischen Systemen und in Lebensmitteln handelt.

This thesis examined how and why TRPV1 function is being modulated in sensory neuropathy and explored the potential of its rescue in the urinary bladder of STZ-­‐induced diabetic rats. Diabetes induced a rapid decline in TRPV1 function and changes in neurogenically mediated electrically-­‐evoked responses together with a gradual decline in muscarinic function. Diabetic bladder was also deficient in muscarinic and TRPV1 organ bath temperature-­‐induced changes but not in those affecting spontaneous contractile activity. Exposure to a potential neuropathy causative agent, methylglyoxal was studied and its mechanism of action explored through the use of TRPA1 ligands. Methylglyoxal exposure mimicked some of the effects of diabetes on TRPV1, neurogenic electrically evoked responses and muscarinic function. Methylglyoxal effects were seen to be partly through TRPA1 receptor activation but other as yet undefined pathways were also involved. Use of TRPA1 ligands revealed an unexpected complexity of the interaction of the TRPA1 receptor with TRPV1. Finally the potential of reversing the diminished TRPV1 response was examined through the use of three known sensitising agents, bradykinin, NGF and insulin. Bradykinin was the only agent seen to reverse the TRPV1 diminished response back up to to control equivalent levels and through the use of bradykinin selective ligands, it was seen that the dual activation of BK-­‐1 and BK-­‐2 receptor was necessary to rescue the TRPV1 response. The likely mechanism of action of bradykinin was through prostaglandin production as indomethacin blocked TRPV1 rescue. In the acute stage of diabetes, TRPV1 function is downregulated and may be caused by exposure to a neuropathy-­‐causing metabolite such as methylglyoxal. The TRPV1 function still retains plasticity at this acute stage because function could be enhanced back to control levels by bradykinin receptor activation : a potential for early therapeutic intervention.

The energy metabolism of most tumor cells relies on aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect) characterized by an increased glycolytic flux that is accompanied by the increased formation of the cytotoxic metabolite methylglyoxal (MGO). Consequently, the rate of detoxification of this reactive glycolytic byproduct needs to be increased in order to prevent deleterious effects to the cells. This is brought about by an increased expression of glyoxalase 1 (GLO1) that is the rate-limiting enzyme of the MGO-detoxifying glyoxalase system. Here, we overexpressed GLO1 in HEK 293 cells and silenced it in MCF-7 cells using shRNA. Tumor-related properties of wild type and transformed cells were compared and key glycolytic enzyme activities assessed. Furthermore, the cells were subjected to hypoxic conditions to analyze the impact on cell proliferation and enzyme activities. Our results demonstrate that knockdown of GLO1 in the cancer cells significantly reduced tumor-associated properties such as migration and proliferation, whereas no functional alterations where found by overexpression of GLO1 in HEK 293 cells. In contrast, hypoxia caused inhibition of cell growth of all cells except of those overexpressing GLO1. Altogether, we conclude that GLO1 on one hand is crucial to maintaining tumor characteristics of malignant cells, and, on the other hand, supports malignant transformation of cells in a hypoxic environment when overexpressed.

Aminoacetona (AA) é um catabólito de Thr e Gly que se acumula nas síndromes cri-du-chat e treoninemia. Atualmente, a oxidação de AA é considerada uma das fontes alternativas de metilglioxal (MG), agente citotóxico e genotóxico, em diabetes mellitus. Em estados de deficiência metabólica, tal como o diabetes, há acúmulo de AA que, por sua vez, sofre oxidação na presença de amino oxidases sensíveis à semicarbazida (SSAO) com a produção de MG, H2O2 e NH4+. As SSAO são enzimas Cu-dependentes, cujo mecanismo de atuação ainda é pouco conhecido e possui como substrato, além de AA, metilamina (endógena) e a benzilamina (xenobiótico). AA possui um grupo amino vicinal à uma carbonila, o que sugere que ela possa sofrer enolização e oxidação catalisada por metal, produzindo espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs), inclusive radicais HO•. A presente tese tem por objetivo esclarecer o mecanismo pelo qual AA sofre oxidação aeróbica, direta e catalisada por metal, com concomitante produção de EROs. Foi dada ênfase à catalise por ferro por sua implicação em desordens associadas com diabetes. Serão apresentados resultados que implicam AA como promotora de danos a membrana de mitocôndrias isoladas, bem como a estrutura proteica de ferritina e ceruloplasmina (CP). Como ferritina e CP estão envolvidas na homeostase de ferro, os danos causados a estas proteínas por AA possivelmente afetam o estado redox de plasma de diabéticos, contribuindo significantemente para o aumento do estresse oxidativo no diabetes. / Aminoacetone (AA) is a threonine and glycine catabolite long known to accumulate in cri-du-chat and threoninemia syndromes and, more recent1y, implicated as a contributing source of methylglyoxal (MG) in diabetes mellitus. AcetylCoA overproduction in diabetes also leads to AA accumulation. AA as well as many other endogenous (e.g., methylamine) and xenobiotic amines (e.g., benzylamine) are oxidized by dioxygen in the presence of SSAO, a group of poorly understood plasma circulating and membrane bound Cu-dependent enzymes, yielding an aldehyde, H2O2 and NH4+ ions. With AA, SSAO activity paradoxally produces the cytotoxic and genotoxic MG. AA bears an amino group vicinal to the carbonyl function and therefore is expected to undergo phosphate-catalyzed enolization and iron-catalyzed oxidation to yield reactive oxygen species (ROS), including HO• radicals. The present work aims to clarify the mechanisms by which AA undergoes direct and metal-catalyzed aerobic oxidation to yield deleterious ROS, with emphasis on the catalytic role of iron given its well-known implications in diabetes. In the present work we show that ROS generated through the aerobic oxidation of AA are able to induce damage in isolated rat liver mitochondria as well as in horse spleen ferritin (HoSF) and human ceruloplasmin (CP). The current findings of changes in HoSF and CP may contribute to explain intracellular iron-induced oxidative stress during AA accumulation in diabetes mellitus patients.