The gene for methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (MTAP) is absent in almost 30% of cancers, opening a door for selective chemotherapy. One strategy to target the absence of MTAP involves the design of a cytotoxic methylthioadenosine (MTA) analogue. Non-cancerous cells would break down the cytotoxic analogue, since they contain MTAP, but cancerous cells would not, since they do not have MTAP. However, before such a compound can be made, we need to better understand the types of substrates accommodated by MTAP. The purpose of this thesis was therefore to explore a series of MTA analogues, probing the structure-function relationships between MTAP and specific structural modifications of MTA. Nine phenylthioadenosine (PTA) derivatives bearing ortho-, meta-, or para- methyl carboxylate, carboxylate, and hydroxymethyl substituents were synthesized and tested for cytotoxicity and as substrates for MTAP. The biological results of these nine compounds suggested that addition of substituents to the ortho-position was not tolerated by MTAP, and substituents similar to the hydroxymethyl might be accommodated by MTAP. None of the compounds were cytotoxic. This informed the design of ten more PTA derivatives, most of which were synthesized and tested for cytotoxicity and as substrates for MTAP. The range of functionalities included an amine, an acetamide, a urea, an isovaleramide, and an N-nitrosourea group inspired by the known anticancer agent lomustine. The amine derivatives of PTA were the best substrates of all MTA analogues tested (including PTA). The meta-amine derivative and the meta-isovaleramide showed minor cytotoxicity. Finally, the urea derivatives were moderate substrates of MTAP, and this pointed towards the future creation of other nitrosoureas as potential cytotoxic MTAP substrates. / Graduate / 2017-08-25

As doenças parasitárias são uma das maiores causas de morte em países em desenvolvimento, e recebem pouca ou nenhuma atenção das indústrias farmacêuticas para o desenvolvimento de terapias. Causada pelo parasita Schistosoma mansoni a esquistossomose mansônica afeta aproximadamente 259 milhões de pessoas no mundo sendo aproximadamente 6 milhões somente no Brasil. O S. mansoni não possui a via \"de novo\" para a biossíntese de bases púricas e depende integralmente da via de salvação para o suprimento dessas bases, portanto, essa via é um alvo em potencial. Agentes capazes de bloquear a atividade das enzimas participantes desta via atuam de forma inespecífica e são quase sempre tóxicos ao homem e por isso o estudo minucioso das pequenas diferenças encontradas entre as enzimas do hospedeiro e do parasita são de extrema importância. Uma diferença marcante entre a via de salvação de purinas do parasita e do hospedeiro humano é a presença de atividade para adenosina fosforilase, que no parasita é exercida por duas entidades distintas: pela enzima Metiltioadenosina fosforilase de S. mansoni (SmMTAP) e por uma enzima até então desconhecida. A enzima SmMTAP naturalmente converte 5\'-deoxi-5\'-metiltioadenosina (MTA) em adenina livre, mas ao contrário do que é visto no hospedeiro, no parasita essa enzima atua preferencialmente na conversão de adenosina. Substituições encontradas no sítio ativo dessa enzima, podem explicar tamanha preferência pelo substrato alternativo, revelando mecanismos distintos da enzima humana. A enzima Purina nucleosídeo fosforilase de S. mansoni (SmPNP) converte inosina e guanosina à hipoxantina e guanina, respectivamente, mas não possui atividade catalítica para adenosina. No entanto, no genoma de S. mansoni é descrita uma isoforma para a SmPNP (SmPNP2), cuja atividade catalítica é desconhecida e, portanto, essa enzima pode também atuar na conversão de adenosina juntamente com a SmMTAP. Assim, os objetivos deste trabalho foram realizar estudos bioquímicos da ação da enzima SmMTAP e realizar a caracterização estrutural e funcional da enzima SmPNP2. Para isso, foram realizadas mutações no sítio ativo da SmMTAP (S12T, N87T, Q289L, S12T/N87T e S12T/N87T/Q289L), as mutantes da SmMTAP juntamente com a enzima SmPNP2 foram clonadas, expressas de forma heteróloga e purificadas. Foram realizados ensaios de cristalização e cinéticos por espectrofotometria utilizando um sistema acoplado. A atividade da SmPNP2 foi ainda avaliada por calorimetria e HPLC. Foram determinadas as constantes catalíticas da forma nativa e para os cinco mutantes da SmMTAP para cinco diferentes substratos. Foi determinada atividade catalítica da SmPNP2 por 3 diferentes substratos: adenosina, inosina e citidina, as constantes catalíticas foram determinadas para os três substratos. Foram obtidos cristais para os mutantes da SmMTAP e da SmPNP2, que foram submetidos à difração de raios X nas linhas I04-1 e I02 do laboratório de radiação síncrotron Diamond Light Source (DLS). Foram resolvidas 9 estruturas dos mutantes da SmMTAP e 4 da proteína SmPNP2. Os dados cinéticos, juntamente com os dados estruturais, permitiram compreender mecanismos catalíticos e de interação das proteínas estudadas, complementando o conhecimento do metabolismo do parasita Schistosoma mansoni e revelando alvos em potencial para o desenvolvimento de fármacos específicos. / The parasitic illness are the leading cause of deaths in developing countries, and receives little or no attention from drug companies to develop therapies. The schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma mansoni parasite and affects approximately 259 million people worldwide with 6 million only in Brazil. The Schistosoma mansoni parasite does not possess the \"de novo\" pathway for purine bases biosynthesis and depends entirely on salvage pathway for its purine requirement, therefore this pathway is a potential target. Compounds able to block the enzymes from this pathway, are not specific and are often toxic to humans, thus the thorough study about the particularity found between enzymes from host and parasite are extremely important. A notable difference between human and parasite metabolism, is the activity existence to Adenosine phosphorylase that in parasite is carried out by two distinct entities: by Methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (SmMTAP) and by a hitherto unknown enzyme. The SmMTAP enzyme, naturally converts 5\'-deoxy-5\'-methylthioadenosine (MTA) to free adenine and in opposition to host, in the parasite this enzyme acts manly in adenosine conversion. Substitutions found in the active site from SmMTAP, can explain the huge preference by alternative substrate and to expose a distinct mechanisms from human enzyme. The Purine nucleoside Phosphorylase from S. mansoni (SmPNP) converts inosine and guanosine to hypoxanthine and guanine, respectively, but it not possess catalytic activity to adenosine conversion. However in the S. mansoni genome there is a isoform to SmPNP, whose activity is unknown, thus is possible that SmPNP2 enzyme also can to convert adenosine. This study aimed to perform biochemical studies to investigate the SmMTAP enzyme action and perform the structural and functional characterization of SmPNP2. For this propose was made site-directed mutagenesis (S12T, N87T, Q289L, S12T/N87T e S12T/N87T/Q289L). The SmMTAP mutants and SmPNP2 enzyme were cloned, expressed by heterolog process and purified. Were perform kinetic assays by spectrophotometric method in a coupled system. The SmPNP2 activity was also available by calorimetry and HPLC methods. Were determined the catalytic constants to wild and mutants SmMTAP to five different substrate. Was determinated to SmPNP2 catalictical activity and kinetics parameters to three substrate: adenosine, inosine e cytidine. Were obtained crystals from SmMTAP mutants and SmPNP2 enzyme, those crystals were submitted to X-rays diffractions in the I04-1 and I02 beamlines from Diamond Light Source (DLS). Nine structures were obtained from SmMTAP mutants and four from SmPNP2 enzyme. The kinetics and structural data allowed understanding the catalytic and interaction mechanisms about the protein studied, supplementing the knowledge around Schistosoma mansoni metabolism and reporting potential targets for the specific drugs development.

As doenças parasitárias são uma das maiores causas de morte em países em desenvolvimento, e recebem pouca ou nenhuma atenção das indústrias farmacêuticas para o desenvolvimento de terapias. A esquistossomose mansoni também conhecida como barriga d´água ou doença do caramujo é uma doença parasitária crônica que afeta aproximadamente 207 milhões de pessoas no mundo sendo aproximadamente 6 milhões somente no Brasil. Os medicamentos disponíveis no mercado causam graves efeitos colaterais. Além disso, há relatos de cepas de S. mansoni resistentes à esses medicamentos, justificando assim a busca por novos fármacos. O Schistosoma mansoni não possui a via de novo para a biosíntese de bases púricas e depende integralmente da via de salvação para o suprimento dessa. Assim, este trabalho teve como objetivo determinar as constantes catalíticas e a estrutura tridimensional da MTAP (EC 2.4.2.28), enzima esta que participam da via de salvação de purinas, e é desta forma essencial para a reprodução do parasita. Esta enzima foi expressa de forma heteróloga, purificada e cristalizada. A proteína foi submetida à ensaios cinéticos em sistema acoplado, onde foram determinadas as constantes catalíticas. A proteína foi também cristalizada em condições que continham 100 mM de Bis-tris ou MES com pH variando entre 6,1 a 6,5 e PEG3350, cuja concentração variou ente 14-18%. Os cristais foram submetidos à difração de raios-X no LNLS e no DLS. Foram obtidos, quatro conjuntos de dados, que foram processados, refinados e analisados. Obteve-se estrutura apoenzima em complexo com fosfato, em complexo com adenina e sulfato, em complexo com tubercidina e sulfato e em complexo com adenina e glicerol em um grupo espacial diferente dos demais. Através da estrutura secundária, foi possível analisar o sítio ativo, além de obter informações preliminares do mecanismo catalítico da enzima alvo. Este trabalho colabora para a futura elucidação completa da via de salvação de purinas em S. mansoni, e fornece informações básicas para que a busca por novos fármacos tenha novos ramos a serem explorados. / The parasitic illness are the leading cause of deaths in developing countries, and receives little or no attention from drug companies to develop therapies. Schistosomiasis mansoni also known as water belly or snail´s disease is a chronic parasitic illness that affects approximately 207 million people worldwide with approximately 6 million in Brazil. Schistosomiasis is treated by the use of drugs that are not-in fact effective for the eradication of the disease, and although their efficiency cause serious side effects. In addition, there are reports of S. mansoni´s resistant strains to these drugs, thus justifying the search for new drugs. The Schistosoma mansoni parasite does not possess the de novo pathway for purine bases biosynthesis and depends entirely on salvage pathways for its purine requirement. Thus this study aimed to determine the catalytic constants and three-dimensional structure of MTAP (EC 2.4.2.28), an enzyme that is involved in purine salvation pathway, and is thus essential to the reproduction of the parasite. The MTAP was heterologously expressed, purified and crystallized. The protein was submitted to kinetic assays in coupled system, to determine the catalytic constants. The protein was crystallized in 100mM Bis-tris or MES pH 6.1-6.5 and 14-18% PEG 3350. The crystals were submitted to diffraction of rays-X in the LNLS and DLS. Data sets were obtained, processed, refined and analyzed. Structures were obtained in apoenzyme form complexed with fosfate, complexed with adenine and sulfate, complexed with tubercidin and sulfate, and with adenine and glycerol in a space group different of the others. Through the secondary structure, it was possible to analyze the active site and obtained preliminary information of the catalytic mechanism of the target enzyme. This study contributes to the complete elucidation of the purine salvation pathway in S. mansoni, and provides basic information for the research of the new drugs.

As doenças parasitárias são uma das maiores causas de morte em países em desenvolvimento, e recebem pouca ou nenhuma atenção das indústrias farmacêuticas para o desenvolvimento de terapias. A esquistossomose mansoni também conhecida como barriga d´água ou doença do caramujo é uma doença parasitária crônica que afeta aproximadamente 207 milhões de pessoas no mundo sendo aproximadamente 6 milhões somente no Brasil. Os medicamentos disponíveis no mercado causam graves efeitos colaterais. Além disso, há relatos de cepas de S. mansoni resistentes à esses medicamentos, justificando assim a busca por novos fármacos. O Schistosoma mansoni não possui a via de novo para a biosíntese de bases púricas e depende integralmente da via de salvação para o suprimento dessa. Assim, este trabalho teve como objetivo determinar as constantes catalíticas e a estrutura tridimensional da MTAP (EC 2.4.2.28), enzima esta que participam da via de salvação de purinas, e é desta forma essencial para a reprodução do parasita. Esta enzima foi expressa de forma heteróloga, purificada e cristalizada. A proteína foi submetida à ensaios cinéticos em sistema acoplado, onde foram determinadas as constantes catalíticas. A proteína foi também cristalizada em condições que continham 100 mM de Bis-tris ou MES com pH variando entre 6,1 a 6,5 e PEG3350, cuja concentração variou ente 14-18%. Os cristais foram submetidos à difração de raios-X no LNLS e no DLS. Foram obtidos, quatro conjuntos de dados, que foram processados, refinados e analisados. Obteve-se estrutura apoenzima em complexo com fosfato, em complexo com adenina e sulfato, em complexo com tubercidina e sulfato e em complexo com adenina e glicerol em um grupo espacial diferente dos demais. Através da estrutura secundária, foi possível analisar o sítio ativo, além de obter informações preliminares do mecanismo catalítico da enzima alvo. Este trabalho colabora para a futura elucidação completa da via de salvação de purinas em S. mansoni, e fornece informações básicas para que a busca por novos fármacos tenha novos ramos a serem explorados. / The parasitic illness are the leading cause of deaths in developing countries, and receives little or no attention from drug companies to develop therapies. Schistosomiasis mansoni also known as water belly or snail´s disease is a chronic parasitic illness that affects approximately 207 million people worldwide with approximately 6 million in Brazil. Schistosomiasis is treated by the use of drugs that are not-in fact effective for the eradication of the disease, and although their efficiency cause serious side effects. In addition, there are reports of S. mansoni´s resistant strains to these drugs, thus justifying the search for new drugs. The Schistosoma mansoni parasite does not possess the de novo pathway for purine bases biosynthesis and depends entirely on salvage pathways for its purine requirement. Thus this study aimed to determine the catalytic constants and three-dimensional structure of MTAP (EC 2.4.2.28), an enzyme that is involved in purine salvation pathway, and is thus essential to the reproduction of the parasite. The MTAP was heterologously expressed, purified and crystallized. The protein was submitted to kinetic assays in coupled system, to determine the catalytic constants. The protein was crystallized in 100mM Bis-tris or MES pH 6.1-6.5 and 14-18% PEG 3350. The crystals were submitted to diffraction of rays-X in the LNLS and DLS. Data sets were obtained, processed, refined and analyzed. Structures were obtained in apoenzyme form complexed with fosfate, complexed with adenine and sulfate, complexed with tubercidin and sulfate, and with adenine and glycerol in a space group different of the others. Through the secondary structure, it was possible to analyze the active site and obtained preliminary information of the catalytic mechanism of the target enzyme. This study contributes to the complete elucidation of the purine salvation pathway in S. mansoni, and provides basic information for the research of the new drugs.

As doenças parasitárias são uma das maiores causas de morte em países em desenvolvimento, e recebem pouca ou nenhuma atenção das indústrias farmacêuticas para o desenvolvimento de terapias. Causada pelo parasita Schistosoma mansoni a esquistossomose mansônica afeta aproximadamente 259 milhões de pessoas no mundo sendo aproximadamente 6 milhões somente no Brasil. O S. mansoni não possui a via \"de novo\" para a biossíntese de bases púricas e depende integralmente da via de salvação para o suprimento dessas bases, portanto, essa via é um alvo em potencial. Agentes capazes de bloquear a atividade das enzimas participantes desta via atuam de forma inespecífica e são quase sempre tóxicos ao homem e por isso o estudo minucioso das pequenas diferenças encontradas entre as enzimas do hospedeiro e do parasita são de extrema importância. Uma diferença marcante entre a via de salvação de purinas do parasita e do hospedeiro humano é a presença de atividade para adenosina fosforilase, que no parasita é exercida por duas entidades distintas: pela enzima Metiltioadenosina fosforilase de S. mansoni (SmMTAP) e por uma enzima até então desconhecida. A enzima SmMTAP naturalmente converte 5\'-deoxi-5\'-metiltioadenosina (MTA) em adenina livre, mas ao contrário do que é visto no hospedeiro, no parasita essa enzima atua preferencialmente na conversão de adenosina. Substituições encontradas no sítio ativo dessa enzima, podem explicar tamanha preferência pelo substrato alternativo, revelando mecanismos distintos da enzima humana. A enzima Purina nucleosídeo fosforilase de S. mansoni (SmPNP) converte inosina e guanosina à hipoxantina e guanina, respectivamente, mas não possui atividade catalítica para adenosina. No entanto, no genoma de S. mansoni é descrita uma isoforma para a SmPNP (SmPNP2), cuja atividade catalítica é desconhecida e, portanto, essa enzima pode também atuar na conversão de adenosina juntamente com a SmMTAP. Assim, os objetivos deste trabalho foram realizar estudos bioquímicos da ação da enzima SmMTAP e realizar a caracterização estrutural e funcional da enzima SmPNP2. Para isso, foram realizadas mutações no sítio ativo da SmMTAP (S12T, N87T, Q289L, S12T/N87T e S12T/N87T/Q289L), as mutantes da SmMTAP juntamente com a enzima SmPNP2 foram clonadas, expressas de forma heteróloga e purificadas. Foram realizados ensaios de cristalização e cinéticos por espectrofotometria utilizando um sistema acoplado. A atividade da SmPNP2 foi ainda avaliada por calorimetria e HPLC. Foram determinadas as constantes catalíticas da forma nativa e para os cinco mutantes da SmMTAP para cinco diferentes substratos. Foi determinada atividade catalítica da SmPNP2 por 3 diferentes substratos: adenosina, inosina e citidina, as constantes catalíticas foram determinadas para os três substratos. Foram obtidos cristais para os mutantes da SmMTAP e da SmPNP2, que foram submetidos à difração de raios X nas linhas I04-1 e I02 do laboratório de radiação síncrotron Diamond Light Source (DLS). Foram resolvidas 9 estruturas dos mutantes da SmMTAP e 4 da proteína SmPNP2. Os dados cinéticos, juntamente com os dados estruturais, permitiram compreender mecanismos catalíticos e de interação das proteínas estudadas, complementando o conhecimento do metabolismo do parasita Schistosoma mansoni e revelando alvos em potencial para o desenvolvimento de fármacos específicos. / The parasitic illness are the leading cause of deaths in developing countries, and receives little or no attention from drug companies to develop therapies. The schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma mansoni parasite and affects approximately 259 million people worldwide with 6 million only in Brazil. The Schistosoma mansoni parasite does not possess the \"de novo\" pathway for purine bases biosynthesis and depends entirely on salvage pathway for its purine requirement, therefore this pathway is a potential target. Compounds able to block the enzymes from this pathway, are not specific and are often toxic to humans, thus the thorough study about the particularity found between enzymes from host and parasite are extremely important. A notable difference between human and parasite metabolism, is the activity existence to Adenosine phosphorylase that in parasite is carried out by two distinct entities: by Methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (SmMTAP) and by a hitherto unknown enzyme. The SmMTAP enzyme, naturally converts 5\'-deoxy-5\'-methylthioadenosine (MTA) to free adenine and in opposition to host, in the parasite this enzyme acts manly in adenosine conversion. Substitutions found in the active site from SmMTAP, can explain the huge preference by alternative substrate and to expose a distinct mechanisms from human enzyme. The Purine nucleoside Phosphorylase from S. mansoni (SmPNP) converts inosine and guanosine to hypoxanthine and guanine, respectively, but it not possess catalytic activity to adenosine conversion. However in the S. mansoni genome there is a isoform to SmPNP, whose activity is unknown, thus is possible that SmPNP2 enzyme also can to convert adenosine. This study aimed to perform biochemical studies to investigate the SmMTAP enzyme action and perform the structural and functional characterization of SmPNP2. For this propose was made site-directed mutagenesis (S12T, N87T, Q289L, S12T/N87T e S12T/N87T/Q289L). The SmMTAP mutants and SmPNP2 enzyme were cloned, expressed by heterolog process and purified. Were perform kinetic assays by spectrophotometric method in a coupled system. The SmPNP2 activity was also available by calorimetry and HPLC methods. Were determined the catalytic constants to wild and mutants SmMTAP to five different substrate. Was determinated to SmPNP2 catalictical activity and kinetics parameters to three substrate: adenosine, inosine e cytidine. Were obtained crystals from SmMTAP mutants and SmPNP2 enzyme, those crystals were submitted to X-rays diffractions in the I04-1 and I02 beamlines from Diamond Light Source (DLS). Nine structures were obtained from SmMTAP mutants and four from SmPNP2 enzyme. The kinetics and structural data allowed understanding the catalytic and interaction mechanisms about the protein studied, supplementing the knowledge around Schistosoma mansoni metabolism and reporting potential targets for the specific drugs development.

Trypanosoma brucei causes African sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in cattle. There are no vaccines available against the disease and the current treatment is also not satisfactory because of inefficacy and numerous side effects of the used drugs. T. brucei lacks de novo synthesis of purine nucleosides; hence it depends on the host to make its purine nucleotides. T. brucei has a high affinity adenosine kinase (TbAK), which phosphorylates adenosine, deoxyadenosine (dAdo), inosine and their analogs. RNAi experiments confirmed that TbAK is responsible for the salvage of dAdo and the toxicity of its substrate analogs. Cell growth assays with the dAdo analogs, Ara-A and F-Ara-A, suggested that TbAK could be exploited for drug development against the disease. It has previously been shown that when T. brucei cells were cultivated in the presence of 1 mM deoxyadenosine (dAdo), they showed accumulation of dATP and depletion of ATP nucleotides. The altered nucleotide levels were toxic to the trypanosomes. However the salvage of dAdo in trypanosomes was dramatically reduced below 0.5 mM dAdo. Radiolabeled dAdo experiments showed that it (especially at low concentrations) is cleaved to adenine and converted to ATP. The recombinant methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (TbMTAP) cleaved methylthioadenosine, dAdo and adenosine into adenine and sugar-1-P in a phosphate-dependent manner. The trypanosomes became more sensitive to dAdo when TbMTAP was down-regulated in RNAi experiments. The RNAi experiments confirmed that trypanosomes avoid dATP accumulation by cleaving dAdo. The TbMTAP cleavage-resistant nucleoside analogs, FANA-A and Ara-A, successfully cured T. brucei-infected mice. The DNA building block dTTP can be synthesized either via thymidylate synthase in the de novo pathway or via thymidine kinase (TK) by salvage synthesis. We found that T. brucei and three other parasites contain a tandem TK where the gene sequence was repeated twice or four times in a single open reading frame. The recombinant T. brucei TK, which belongs to the TK1 family, showed broad substrate specificity. The enzyme phosphorylated the pyrimidine nucleosides thymidine and deoxyuridine, as well as the purine nucleosides deoxyinosine and deoxyguanosine. When the repeated sequences of the tandem TbTK were expressed individually as domains, only domain 2 was active. However, the protein could not dimerize and had a 5-fold reduced affinity to its pyrimidine substrates but a similar turnover number as the full-length enzyme. The expressed domain 1 was inactive and sequence analysis revealed that some active residues, which are needed for substrate binding and catalysis, are absent. Generally, the TK1 family enzymes form dimers or tetramers and the quaternary structure is linked to the affinity for the substrates. The covalently linked inactive domain-1 helps domain-2 to form a pseudodimer for the efficient binding of substrates. In addition, we discovered a repetition of an 89-bp sequence in both domain 1 and domain 2, which suggests a genetic exchange between the two domains. T. brucei is very dependent on de novo synthesis via ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) for the production of dNTPs. Even though T. brucei RNR belongs to the class Ia RNR family and contains an ATP-binding cone, it lacks inhibition by dATP. The mechanism behind the RNR activation by ATP and inactivation by dATP was a puzzle for a long time in the ~50 years of RNR research. We carried out oligomerization studies on mouse and E. coli RNRs, which belongs to the same family as T. brucei, to get an understanding of the molecular mechanism behind overall activity regulation. We found that the oligomerization status of RNRs and overall activity mechanism are interlinked with each other. / Targeting the nucleotide metabolism of the mammalian pathogen Trypanosoma brucei.

Trypanosoma brucei is a causative agent of African sleeping sickness. It is an extracellular parasite which circulates in the blood, lymph and eventually invades the central nervous system. There is a great need for new medicines against the disease and specific properties of nucleoside kinases in the pathogen can be exploited as targets for chemotherapy.  T. brucei contains a gene where two thymidine kinase sequences are fused into a single open reading frame. These types of tandem thymidine kinases were found only in different types of parasites, which made us to believe that it might be beneficial for them. Each thymidine kinase sequence in these tandem enzymes are here referred to as a domain. By cloning and expressing each domain from T. brucei separately, we found that domain 1 was inactive and domain 2 was as active as the full-length enzyme. T. brucei thymidine kinase phosphorylated the pyrimidine nucleosides thymidine and deoxyuridine and to some extent purine nucleosides like deoxyinosine and deoxyguanosine. Human thymidine kinase increases the affinity to its substrates when it forms oligomers. Similarly, the T. brucei two thymidine kinase sequences, which can be viewed as a pseudodimer, had a higher affinity to its substrates than domain 2 alone.  T. brucei lacks de novo purine biosynthesis and it is therefore dependent on salvaging the required purine nucleotides for RNA and DNA synthesis from the host. Purine salvage is considered as a target for drug development. It has been shown that in the presence of deoxyadenosine in the growth medium, the parasites accumulate high levels of dATP and the extensive phosphorylation of deoxyadenosine leads to depleted ATP pools. Initially, we wondered if deoxyadenosine could be used as a drug against T. brucei. However, we found that T. brucei is partially protected against deoxyadenosine because it was cleaved by the enzyme methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (MTAP) to adenine and ribose-1-phosphate. At higher concentration of deoxyadenosine, 3 the formed adenine was not efficiently salvaged into ATP and started to inhibit MTAP instead. The deoxyadenosine was then instead phosphorylated by adenosine kinase leading to accumulation of dATP. The MTAP reaction makes deoxyadenosine itself useless as a drug and instead we focused on finding analogues of deoxyadenosine or adenosine that were cleavage-resistant and at the same time good substrates of T. brucei adenosine kinase. Our best hit was then 9-(2-deoxy-2-fluoro-ß-D-arabinofuranosyl) adenine (FANA-A). An additional advantage of FANA-A as a drug was that it was taken up by the P1 nucleoside transporter family, which makes it useful also against multidrug resistant parasites that often have lost the P2 transporter function and take up their purines solely by the P1 transporter. In parallel with our study of nucleoside metabolism in T. brucei, we also have a collaboration project where we screen essential oils from plants which are used in traditional medicine. If the essential oils are active against the trypanosomes, we further analyze the different components in the oils to identify new drugs against African sleeping sickness. One such compound identified from the plant Smyrnium olusatrum is isofuranodiene, which inhibited T. brucei proliferation with an IC50 value of 3 μM.

Los cuerpos nucleares de Cajal (CBs) son estructuras nucleares implicadas en la biogénesis de ribonucleoproteínas nucleares y nucleolares de pequeño tamaño (snRNPs y snoRNPs) requeridas para el procesamiento nuclear de pre-mRNAs y pre-rRNAs, respectivamente. El CB concentra la proteína coilina, un marcador molecular de esta estructura, snRNPs, el factor de supervivencia de las neuronas motoras (SNM) y las proteínas que comparte con el nucleolo Nopp140 y fibrilarina. Los CB son estructuras dependientes de transcripción, pero los mecanismos de ensamblaje molecular de estos cuerpos nucleares son poco conocidos.En este estudio se utilizan métodos de inmunofluorescencia, expresión ectópica de proteínas del CB y métodos bioquímicos para analizar la importancia de dos modificaciones postraduccionales, la metilación de la coilina y la conjugación con SUMO1 del factor SMN para el ensamblaje molecular de los CBs. Se ha utilizado la línea celular MCF7 como un modelo de hipometilación endógena debido al déficit del gen MTAP. La hipometilación de la coilina conduce al desensamblaje de los CBs y a la relocalización nucleolar de la coilina no metilada. Este efecto revierte en células transfectadas que expresan el gen MTAPwt, indicando que el grado de metilación de la coilina marca su destino nuclear.Respecto a la importancia de la sumoilación en el ensamblaje de los CBs, hemos demostrado la existencia de un subtipo de CBs que concentran SUMO1 y la conjugasa de SUMO Ubc9. En neuronas, hemos detectado la presencia de SUMO durante la fase de reformación de CBs, en la respuesta al estrés. Los experimentos de inmunoprecipitación confirman la interacción de SUMO-1 con el factor SMN y demuestran que la lisina K119, portadora de una secuencia consenso de sumoilación, es esencial para la regulación del número de CBs. / Cajal bodies (CBs) are nuclear structures involved in the biogenesis of small nuclear and nucleolar ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs and snoRNPs) required for nuclear processing of pre-mRNAs and pre-rRNAs, respectively. CBs concentrate the protein coilin, a molecular marker of this structure, snRNPs, the survival of motor neurons factor (SMN) and proteins shared with the nucleolus Nopp140 and fibrillarin. CBs are transcription-dependent structures, but the mechanisms of molecular assembly of these structures are poorly understood.In this study we used inmunofluorescence, ectopic expresion of CB proteins and biochemical methods to analyze the importance of two posttranslational modifications, methylation of coilin and conjugation of SMN with SUMO1, for the molecular assembly of CBs. The cell line MCF7 has been used as a model of endogenous hypomethylation due to the lack of MTAP gene. Coilin hypomethylation leads to the disassembly of CBs and nucleolar relocation of unmethylated coilin. This effect reverses in transfected cells expressing the gene MTAPwt, indicating that the degree of methylation of coilin directs its nuclear destination.On the importance of sumoylation in the assembly of CBs, we have demonstrated the existence of a subset of CBs which concentrate SUMO1 and the SUMO1 conjugase Ubc9. In neurons, we detected the presence of SUMO1 during the reformation of CBs in response to stress. Immunoprecipitation experiments confirm the molecular interaction of SUMO1 with SMN and demonstrate that lysine 119, carrying the SMN sumoylation consensus sequence, is essential for regulating the number of CBs.