O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico sobre o desempenho de trocadores de calor com microcanais. Primeiramente, para a verificação da ferramenta numérica, uma comparação com um estudo experimental conhecido é realizado. Em seguida, aperfeiçoamentos disponíveis na literatura são testados e comparados. As simulações numéricas são realizadas com o software Fluent utilizando o Método dos Volumes Finitos (MVF). O resultado numérico da resistência térmica do dissipador do estudo experimental em que a primeira parte desse trabalho foi baseada ficou em 0,097 °C/W (com uma temperatura máxima de 373 K), enquanto o resultado experimental ficou em 0,090 °C/W, o que representa uma diferença de 7,2 %. São realizados aperfeiçoamentos integrando o trocador de calor a um sistema de refrigeração. Isso reduz a temperatura de entrada e, consequentemente, a temperatura máxima encontrada no sistema (350 K para uma mesma potência dissipada) não havendo mudança na resistência térmica, porém trazendo um ganho em confiabilidade. São apresentadas mudanças na geometria do dissipador diminuindo a área de entrada, com uma sensível piora nos resultados da resistência térmica, fazendo com que a resistência aumentasse de 0,097 °C/W para o canal original para 0,272 °C/W para o canal com menor altura. Apresenta-se um trocador de calor cujos microcanais em suas dimensões longitudinais possuem ondulações, porém os efeitos esperados de melhor mistura e maior área de contato para o fluxo de calor não foram observados para as condições de contorno do experimento original; a resistência térmica calculada foi de 0,102 °C/W. A última análise apresenta uma idealização onde o fluxo de calor é distribuído uniformemente no volume de silício, encontrando-se uma resistência térmica de 0,084 °C/W. / This paper presents a numerical study on the performance of heatsinks with microchannels. For the validation of the numerical tool, a comparison with a known experimental study is carried out, then improvements available in the literature on the subject are tested and compared. The numerical simulations are performed with the Fluent software using the Finite Volumes Method (MVF). The numerical result of the thermal resistance of the heatsink from the experimental study which the first part of this paper is based was 0.097 °C/W, whereas the experimental result was 0.090 °C/W (with a maximum temperature of 373 K), representing a difference of 7.2%. An improvement is performed by integrating the heatsink to a HVAC (Heating, ventilation and air conditioning) system, which lowers the inlet temperature and consequently lowers the highest temperature found in the system (350 K for the same dissipated power) without changing the thermal resistance, but providing gains in reliability. Changes in the heatsink geometry are presented by decreasing the inlet area, with a significant worsening in the thermal resistance results, causing the resistance to vary from 0.097 °C/W for the original channel to 0.272 °C/W for the channel that has the lowest height. A heatsink whose microchannels have waves in their longitudinal dimensions is shown, but the expected effects of better mixing and greater contact area for the heat flux were not observed for the boundary conditions of the original experiment, the calculated thermal resistance was of 0.102 °C/W. The last analysis presents an idealization where the heat flux is evenly distributed in the silicon volume, with a thermal resistance of 0.084 °C/W.

O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico sobre o desempenho de trocadores de calor com microcanais. Primeiramente, para a verificação da ferramenta numérica, uma comparação com um estudo experimental conhecido é realizado. Em seguida, aperfeiçoamentos disponíveis na literatura são testados e comparados. As simulações numéricas são realizadas com o software Fluent utilizando o Método dos Volumes Finitos (MVF). O resultado numérico da resistência térmica do dissipador do estudo experimental em que a primeira parte desse trabalho foi baseada ficou em 0,097 °C/W (com uma temperatura máxima de 373 K), enquanto o resultado experimental ficou em 0,090 °C/W, o que representa uma diferença de 7,2 %. São realizados aperfeiçoamentos integrando o trocador de calor a um sistema de refrigeração. Isso reduz a temperatura de entrada e, consequentemente, a temperatura máxima encontrada no sistema (350 K para uma mesma potência dissipada) não havendo mudança na resistência térmica, porém trazendo um ganho em confiabilidade. São apresentadas mudanças na geometria do dissipador diminuindo a área de entrada, com uma sensível piora nos resultados da resistência térmica, fazendo com que a resistência aumentasse de 0,097 °C/W para o canal original para 0,272 °C/W para o canal com menor altura. Apresenta-se um trocador de calor cujos microcanais em suas dimensões longitudinais possuem ondulações, porém os efeitos esperados de melhor mistura e maior área de contato para o fluxo de calor não foram observados para as condições de contorno do experimento original; a resistência térmica calculada foi de 0,102 °C/W. A última análise apresenta uma idealização onde o fluxo de calor é distribuído uniformemente no volume de silício, encontrando-se uma resistência térmica de 0,084 °C/W. / This paper presents a numerical study on the performance of heatsinks with microchannels. For the validation of the numerical tool, a comparison with a known experimental study is carried out, then improvements available in the literature on the subject are tested and compared. The numerical simulations are performed with the Fluent software using the Finite Volumes Method (MVF). The numerical result of the thermal resistance of the heatsink from the experimental study which the first part of this paper is based was 0.097 °C/W, whereas the experimental result was 0.090 °C/W (with a maximum temperature of 373 K), representing a difference of 7.2%. An improvement is performed by integrating the heatsink to a HVAC (Heating, ventilation and air conditioning) system, which lowers the inlet temperature and consequently lowers the highest temperature found in the system (350 K for the same dissipated power) without changing the thermal resistance, but providing gains in reliability. Changes in the heatsink geometry are presented by decreasing the inlet area, with a significant worsening in the thermal resistance results, causing the resistance to vary from 0.097 °C/W for the original channel to 0.272 °C/W for the channel that has the lowest height. A heatsink whose microchannels have waves in their longitudinal dimensions is shown, but the expected effects of better mixing and greater contact area for the heat flux were not observed for the boundary conditions of the original experiment, the calculated thermal resistance was of 0.102 °C/W. The last analysis presents an idealization where the heat flux is evenly distributed in the silicon volume, with a thermal resistance of 0.084 °C/W.

Em linhas gerais, esta dissertação de mestrado envolve o estudo de padrões de escoaomento durante a ebulição convectiva em microcanais. Resultados experimentais foram levantados para um tubo com diâmetro de 2,32 mm durante a evaporação convectiva dos refrigerantes R134a e R245fa. Para a investigação, técnicas experimentais e de análise foram desenvolvidas. A caracterização dos padrões de escoamento envolveu o tratamento simultâneo de sinais provenientes dos seguintes dispositivos: um par diodo/sensor-laser tendo um tubo transparente entre eles no interior do qual ocorre o escoamento bifásico; um transdutor de pressão piezo-elétrico de tamanho reduzido com o objetivo de determinar a variação local da pressão do escoamento; e de um micro-termopar em contato com o fluido refrigerante. A técnica de tratamento de dados utilizada envolve a aglomeração progressiva de dados que apresentem características médias similares através do algoritmo k-means. Os sinais de pressão, intensidade de radiação e temperatura foram adquiridos simultaneamente a uma freqüência de 25 kHz. Imagens simultâneas do escoamento bifásico a uma velocidade de captura em torno de 10.000 imagens/s foram levantadas através de uma câmera de filmagem rápida (até 100.000 imagens/s), e os padrões de escoamentos observados contrastados aos resultados fornecidos pelo método proposto. Baseado nesta análise, mapas de escoamento foram propostos, os quais incorporaram não apenas critérios subjetivos como a visualização, mas também objetivos como as variações transientes da pressão local do escoamento e da morfologia do escoamento através do seu efeito na dispersão da radiação emitida pelo foto-diodo. Os resultados previstos pelo método objetivo apresentam concordância razoável com os dados caracterizados com base em visualizações. Adicionalmente, características de bolhas alongadas foram determinadas. / The present research has been focused on the study of flow patterns inside channels of diameter less than 3 mm during the convective evaporation of refrigerants such as R134a and R245fa. For the investigation of such topics, experimental techniques and methods of analysis of results were developed. A broad database was gathered in an experimental test facility. The characterization of flow patterns involved the simultaneous processing of signals from the following devices: a pair diode / laser-sensor having a transparent tube between them, within which occurs the two-phase flow; a micro piezoelectric pressure transducer to determine the local variation of pressure of the flow and a micro-thermocouple fixed within the fluid. The technique used in data processing involves the gradual agglomeration of data having similar average characteristics; this method was developed based on the k-means clustering algorithm. The signals from the transducers were acquired simultaneously at a frequency of 25 kHz. The program for the acquisition and for processing of the signals was developed using LabView. Simultaneous images of two-phase flow at a speed of capture around 10,000 images / s were obtained through a high speed camera and the observed flow patterns were contrasted to the results provided by the objective method. Based on this analysis, flow maps were proposed, which incorporate not only subjective criteria such as visualization, but also objective criteria like the transient variations of local pressure of the flow, temperature of the fluid and the effect of the flow morphology based on the dispersion of light which effect was captured by the photo-diode. The maps obtained by the objective method were compared against flow pattern segregated based on visualization and a reasonable agreement was obtained. Besides the elongated bubble characteristics were determined.

Dissipadores de calor baseados em microcanais são apresentados como solução para a remoção de fluxos de calor elevados em espaços restritos, pois proporcionam elevados coeficientes de transferência de calor quando comparados a canais convencionais. Tais trocadores também proporcionam elevadas razões entre a área superficial em contato com o refrigerante por unidade de volume do dissipador. Além dos microcanais, a utilização de nanofluidos também se apresenta como tecnologia com potencial de incremento do coeficiente de transferência de calor. Os nanofluidos consistem na adição de nanopartículas a um fluido base visando alterar suas propriedades de transporte termodinâmicas. Neste contexto, o objetivo do presente estudo é avaliar o coeficiente de transferência de calor para escoamentos monofásicos e ebulição convectiva de nanofluidos aquosos no interior de microcanais. Para isto, foram realizados experimentos em canais com diâmetro de 1,1 mm e comprimento de 200 mm para água deionizada, nanofluidos de alumina com diâmetros de 20-30 e 40-80 nm, nanofluidos de dióxido de silício com diâmetros de 15 e 80 nm, e nanofluidos de cobre com diâmetro de 25 nm. Estas soluções foram ensaiadas para concentrações volumétricas de nanopartículas de 0,001, 0,01 e 0,1, velocidades mássicas de 200, 400 e 600 kg/m2s e fluxos de calor de 20 a 350 kW/m2. A análise dos resultados revelou que a adição de nanopartículas a água deionizada proporciona o incremento do número de Nusselt para escoamentos monofásicos, principalmente na região inicial do tubo. Concluiu-se que os efeitos da adição de nanopartículas a um fluido base no coeficiente de transferência de calor durante a ebulição convectiva estão relacionados ao recobrimento da superfície com uma camada porosa. A deposição de nanopartículas com diâmetro inferior a 30 nm resultou na redução do coeficiente de transferência de calor e das instabilidades térmicas do escoamento em relação a água deionizada. O coeficiente de transferência de calor e as instabilidades térmicas não apresentaram variações significativas da deposição de nanopartículas com diâmetro superior a 40 nm. Por meio da análise da textura das superfícies recobertas e do critério de nucleação proposto por Kandlikar et al. (1997) concluiu-se que tal comportamento encontra-se associado aos efeitos do acabamento superficial na densidade de cavidades de nucleação ativas. / Microchannels based heat exchangers were introduced as a solution to high heat flux removal in restrict spaces due to their high heat transfer coefficients compared to heat exchangers based on conventional channels. The high ratio of surface are per volume is an additional advantage to microchannels in relation to conventional channels. Beside the microchannels technology, the nanofluids also present itself as a technique with potential to increase the heat transfer coefficient. Nanofluids consist of a solution containing nanoparticles dispersed in a base fluid with the goal to improve its thermodynamic and transport properties. In this context, the objective of the present study is to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient for single-phase flow and convective boiling of aqueous nanofluids inside microchannels. Experiments were performed for channels with internal diameter of 1.1mm and 200 mm long for DI-water, nanofluids containing alumina- (nanoparticles diameters of 20-30 and 40-80 nm), silicon dioxide (nanoparticles diameters of 15 and 80 nm), and copper (nanoparticles diameter of 25 nm). These solutions were evaluated for volumetric concentrations of 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1%, mass velocities of 200, 400 and 600 kg/m2s and heat fluxes from 20 to 350 kW/m2. The analysis of the results revealed that the addition of nanoparticles to DI-water causes an increment in the Nusselt number for single phase flows, especially at the inlet of the tube. The results for flow boiling indicated that the effects of adding nanoparticles to the base fluid are related to the deposition on the heating surface of a nanoparticles porous layer due to the boiling process. The deposition of nanoparticles smaller than 30 nm promoted a reduction of the heat transfer coefficient compared to DI-water on a clean surface, and thermal instabilities were minimized. For the deposition of nanoparticles larger than 40 nm these parameters did not presented significant variations in comparison to DI-water. A combined analysis of the surfaces finishing and the criterion of Kandlikar et al. (1997) for bubble nucleation revealed that such behaviors are correlated to the effects of the surface texture associated to the boiling process on the density of active nucleation cavities.

O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico sobre o desempenho de trocadores de calor com microcanais. Primeiramente, para a verificação da ferramenta numérica, uma comparação com um estudo experimental conhecido é realizado. Em seguida, aperfeiçoamentos disponíveis na literatura são testados e comparados. As simulações numéricas são realizadas com o software Fluent utilizando o Método dos Volumes Finitos (MVF). O resultado numérico da resistência térmica do dissipador do estudo experimental em que a primeira parte desse trabalho foi baseada ficou em 0,097 °C/W (com uma temperatura máxima de 373 K), enquanto o resultado experimental ficou em 0,090 °C/W, o que representa uma diferença de 7,2 %. São realizados aperfeiçoamentos integrando o trocador de calor a um sistema de refrigeração. Isso reduz a temperatura de entrada e, consequentemente, a temperatura máxima encontrada no sistema (350 K para uma mesma potência dissipada) não havendo mudança na resistência térmica, porém trazendo um ganho em confiabilidade. São apresentadas mudanças na geometria do dissipador diminuindo a área de entrada, com uma sensível piora nos resultados da resistência térmica, fazendo com que a resistência aumentasse de 0,097 °C/W para o canal original para 0,272 °C/W para o canal com menor altura. Apresenta-se um trocador de calor cujos microcanais em suas dimensões longitudinais possuem ondulações, porém os efeitos esperados de melhor mistura e maior área de contato para o fluxo de calor não foram observados para as condições de contorno do experimento original; a resistência térmica calculada foi de 0,102 °C/W. A última análise apresenta uma idealização onde o fluxo de calor é distribuído uniformemente no volume de silício, encontrando-se uma resistência térmica de 0,084 °C/W. / This paper presents a numerical study on the performance of heatsinks with microchannels. For the validation of the numerical tool, a comparison with a known experimental study is carried out, then improvements available in the literature on the subject are tested and compared. The numerical simulations are performed with the Fluent software using the Finite Volumes Method (MVF). The numerical result of the thermal resistance of the heatsink from the experimental study which the first part of this paper is based was 0.097 °C/W, whereas the experimental result was 0.090 °C/W (with a maximum temperature of 373 K), representing a difference of 7.2%. An improvement is performed by integrating the heatsink to a HVAC (Heating, ventilation and air conditioning) system, which lowers the inlet temperature and consequently lowers the highest temperature found in the system (350 K for the same dissipated power) without changing the thermal resistance, but providing gains in reliability. Changes in the heatsink geometry are presented by decreasing the inlet area, with a significant worsening in the thermal resistance results, causing the resistance to vary from 0.097 °C/W for the original channel to 0.272 °C/W for the channel that has the lowest height. A heatsink whose microchannels have waves in their longitudinal dimensions is shown, but the expected effects of better mixing and greater contact area for the heat flux were not observed for the boundary conditions of the original experiment, the calculated thermal resistance was of 0.102 °C/W. The last analysis presents an idealization where the heat flux is evenly distributed in the silicon volume, with a thermal resistance of 0.084 °C/W.

No description available.

One approach recently proposed for reducing the frictional resistance to liquid flow in microchannels is the patterning of micro-ribs and cavities on the channel walls. When treated with a hydrophobic coating, the liquid flowing in the microchannel wets only the top surfaces of the ribs, and does not penetrate into the cavities, provided the pressure is not too high. The net result is a reduction in the surface contact area between channel walls and the flowing liquid. For micro-ribs and cavities that are aligned normal to the channel axis (principal flow direction), these micropatterns form a repeating, periodic structure. This thesis presents numerical results of a study exploring the momentum and thermal transport in a parallel plate microchannel with such microengineered walls. The liquid-vapor interface (meniscus) in the cavity regions is approximated as flat in the numerical analysis. Two conditions are explored with regard to the cavity region: 1) The liquid flow at the liquid-vapor interface is treated as shear-free (vanishing viscosity in the vapor region), and 2) the liquid flow in the microchannel core and the vapor flow within the cavity are coupled through the velocity and shear stress matching at the interface. Predictions reveal that significant reductions in the frictional pressure drop (as large as 80%) can be achieved relative to the classical smooth channel Stokes flow. In general, reductions in the friction factor-Reynolds number product (fRe) are greater as the cavity-to-rib length ratio is increased (increasing shear-free fraction), as the relative module length (length of a rib-cavity module over the channel hydraulic diameter) is increased, as the Reynolds number decreases, and as the vapor cavity depth increases. The thermal transport results predict lower average Nusselt (Nu) numbers as the cavity-to-rib length ratio is increased (increasing shear-free fraction), as the relative module length (is increased, and as the Reynolds number decreases with little dependence on cavity depth. The ratio of Nu to fRe was evaluated to characterize the relative change in heat transfer with respect to the reduction in driving pressure. Results show that the benefits of reduction in driving pressure outweigh the cost of reduction in heat transfer at higher Reynolds numbers and narrower relative channel widths.

There is significant interest in reducing the frictional resistance that occurs along a surface in contact with a liquid. A novel approach to reducing the frictional resistance across a liquid-solid interface is the use of superhydrophobic surfaces. superhydrophobic surfaces are created in this work by the use of micro-fabrication techniques where systematic roughness is fabricated on a substrate surface which is subsequently treated with a hydrophobic coating. This work reports an experimental study of superhydrophobic surfaces used to reduce drag in both laminar and turbulent channel flows. In the laminar flow regime reductions in frictional resistance greater than 55% were measured in microchannels consisting of superhydrophobic walls. The reduction in frictional resistance for laminar flow in microchannels with superhydrophobic walls was shown to be dependent on the rib/cavity orientation, with greater reduction achieved when the ribs/cavities were aligned parallel with the direction of the flow. Also, the ratio of the cavity width to the combined rib/cavity pitch and the ratio of the combined rib/cavity pitch to the microchannel hydraulic diameter exercise influence on the frictional resistance. The condition when the flowing liquid was allowed to completely "wet" the cavities was also explored. Generalized expressions enabling prediction of the classical friction factor-Reynolds number product as a function of the relevant governing parameters were also developed. The influence of superhydrophobic surfaces in turbulent flow was explored in macrochannels using particle imaging velocimetry (PIV). For the turbulent flow regime the time-averaged velocity profiles revealed no discernible slip velocity at the superhydrophobic wall. However, the results did show that the superhydrophobic surfaces exhibits an influence on the streamwise and wall-normal turbulence intensities, the turbulent shear stress, the total shear stress distributions, and the turbulence production in the channel. From the total shear stress distributions in the channel the coefficient of friction at the channel walls was determined. The results showed that for the superhydrophobic surface with ribs and cavities oriented parallel to the flow direction a reduction in the coefficient of friction as high as 16% was achieved compared to a smooth wall channel. Superhydrophobic surfaces with ribs and cavities oriented transverse to the flow direction showed a modest increase in the coefficient of friction. Differential pressure measurements in the turbulent flow channel were also acquired and used to calculate the channel average friction factor.

This work specifically aims to provide a fundamental framework, with some experimental validation, for understanding droplet emulsion dynamics in a microfluidic channel with an applied electric field. Electrification of fluids can result in several different modes of electrohydrodynamics (EHD). Several studies to date have provided theoretical, experimental, and numerical results for stationary droplet deformations and some flowing droplet configurations, but none have reported a method by which droplets of different diameters can be separated, binned and routed through the use of electric fields. It is therefore the goal of this work to fill that void and report a comprehensive understanding of how the electric field can affect flowing droplet dynamics. This work deals with two primary models used in electrohydrodynamics: the leaky dielectric model and the perfect dielectric model. The perfect dielectric model assumes that fluids with low conductivities do not react to any effects from the small amount of free charge they contain, and can be assumed as dielectrics, or electrical insulators. The leaky dielectric model suggests that even though the free charge is minimal in fluids with low conductivities, it is still is enough to affect droplet deformations. Finite element numerical results of stationary droplet deformations, implemented using the level set method, compare well both qualitatively (prolate/oblate and vortex directions), and quantitatively with results published by other researchers. Errors of less than 7.5% are found when comparing three-dimensional (3D) numerical results of this study to results predicted by the 3D leaky dielectric model, for a stationary high conductivity drop suspended in a slightly lower conductivity suspending medium. Droplet formations in a T-junction with no applied electric field are adequately predicted numerically using the level set finite element technique, as demonstrated by other researchers and verified in this study. For 3D models, droplet size is within 6%, and droplet production frequency is within 2.4% of experimental values found in the microfluidic Tjunction device. In order to reduce computational complexity, a larger scale model was solved first iii to obtain electrical potential distributions localized at the channel walls for the electrode placement configurations. Droplet deceleration and pinning is demonstrated, both experimentally and numerically, by applying steep gradients of electrical potential to the microchannel walls. As droplets flow over these electrical potential “steps,” they are pinned to the channel walls if the resulting electric forces are large enough to overcome the hydrodynamic forces. A balance between four dimensionless force ratios, the electric Euler number (Eue – ratio of inertial to electric forces), Mason number (M a – ratio of viscous to electric forces), electric pressure (P s – ratio of upstream pressure forces to electric forces), and the electric capillary number (Cae – ratio of electric to capillary forces) are used to quantify the magnitudes of each of these forces required to pin a droplet, and is consistent with a cubic dependency on the drop diameter. For larger drop diameters, effects of hydrodynamic forces become more prominent, and for smaller droplets, a greater electric forces is required due to the proximity of the droplet boundary with reference to the electrified channel wall. Droplet deceleration and pinning can be exploited to route droplets into different branches of a microfluidic T-junction. In addition, using steep electrical potential gradients placed strategically along a microchannel, droplets can even be passively binned by size into separate branches of the microfluidic device. These characteristics have been identified and demonstrated in this work.

Given the surmounting disagreement amongst researchers in the area of liquid flow behavior at the microscale for the past thirty years, this work presents a fundamental approach to analyzing the pressure losses experienced by the laminar flow of water (Re = 7 to Re = 130) through both rectangular straight duct microchannels (of widths ranging from 50 to 130 micrometers), and microchannels with sudden expansions and contractions (with area ratios ranging from 0.4 to 1.0) all with a constant depth of 104 micrometers. The simplified Bernoulli equations for uniform, steady, incompressible, internal duct flow were used to compare flow through these microchannels to macroscale theory predictions for pressure drop. One major advantage of the channel design (and subsequent experimental set-up) was that pressure measurements could be taken locally, directly before and after the test section of interest, instead of globally which requires extensive corrections to the pressure measurements before an accurate result can be obtained. Bernoulli's equation adjusted for major head loses (using Darcy friction factors) and minor head losses (using appropriate K values) was found to predict the flow behavior within the calculated theoretical uncertainty (~12%) for all 150+ microchannels tested, except for sizes that pushed the aspect ratio limits of the manufacturing process capabilities (microchannels fabricated via soft lithography using PDMS). The analysis produced conclusive evidence that liquid flow through microchannels at these relative channel sizes and Reynolds numbers follow macroscale predictions without experiencing any of the reported anomalies expressed in other microfluidics research. This work also perfected the delicate technique required to pierce through the PDMS material and into the microchannel inlets, exit and pressure ports without damaging the microchannel. Finally, two verified explanations for why prior researchers have obtained poor agreement between macroscale theory predictions and tests at the microscale were due to the presence of bubbles in the microchannel test section (producing higher than expected pressure drops), and the occurrence of localized separation between the PDMS slabs and thus, the microchannel itself (producing lower than expected pressure drops).