<p>Patients suffering from different forms of neurodegenerative diseases, such as: Creutzfeldt Jacob Disease (CJD), Alzheimer disease (AD), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), frontotemporal dementia and Parkinson’s disease (PD) were examined with Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and the combination of different radiotracers: ¹⁵O-water, N-[¹¹C-methyl]-L-deuterodeprenyl (DED), [¹⁸F] 2-fluorodeoxyglucose: (FDG), N-methyl-[¹¹C]2-(4-methylaminophenyl)-6-hydroxybenzothiazole (PIB) and L-[¹¹C]-3,4-dihydroxiphenyl-alanine (DOPA). The radiotracers and the combinations of different radiotracers were selected with the intention to detect, in the brain, patterns of neuronal dysfunction, astrocytosis, axon degeneration or protein aggregation (amyloid), in the brain which are pathognomonic for specific diseases and may contribute to improve clinical differential diagnoses. Examinations in healthy volunteers were performed to allow comparisons with patients. In addition, animal studies were conducted to complement the information. In some cases, the PET findings could be compared with the results of autopsies.</p><p>In contrast to the micropathology, in which only a limited part of a tissue (obtained post-mortem or by biopsy) is inspected, one PET acquisition provides an image of the whole system (e.g.: the brain and the cerebellum). This form of imaging pathology is “<i>in vivo</i>”, where the examination is innocuous for the patient. </p><p>This thesis is an attempt to stimulate the development of new tracers, new tracer combinations and methods that directly or indirectly describe the anatomo-physiopathological changes produced in the brain in neurodegenerative diseases. A better description of different diseases can be obtained, confirming or questioning the clinical diagnoses and widening our understanding of the mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration. Different pathologies can produce similar symptoms and thus causing confusion regarding clinical diagnosis. The used PET combinations improved the accuracy of the diagnoses. The incipient knowledge emerging from a new neuroimaging pathology in combination with other disciplines may open the way to new classifications of dementias and neurodegenerative diseases based on an “<i>in vivo</i>” pathology. </p>

No description available.

<p>The field of "perinatal programming" has increasingly implicated an adverse early-life environment in the etiology of many chronic health problems and mental disorders. The following dissertation research is based on the hypothesis that the programming of brain and behavior by an altered early-life environment is propagated by inflammatory mechanisms in the placenta and developing brain. Offspring outcomes of two different maternal environmental exposures--air pollution and a "Western diet" (both highly relevant for the modern world)--were assessed in a mouse model in order to identify mechanisms common to developmental programming more generally.</p><p>The first set of experiments characterized the long-term behavioral and metabolic consequences of prenatal air pollution exposure in adult offspring. The male offspring of diesel exhaust particle (DEP)-exposed dams were predisposed to obesity, insulin resistance, and increased anxiety following placement on a high-fat diet (HFD) in adulthood. Furthermore, DEP/HFD male offspring exhibited evidence of macrophage priming, both in microglia and peripheral macrophages. The next experiment examined whether prenatal air pollution exposure could also synergize with a simultaneous "second hit" (i.e., maternal stress) during gestation. The offspring of mothers exposed to both air pollution and stress during gestation were more anxious as adults, but only the male offspring of this group also exhibited impaired cognition, in conjunction with neuroinflammatory changes. A further experiment revealed that prenatal air pollution exposure altered microglial maturation in a TLR4- and sex-dependent manner, consistent with the previous results. However, we found limited evidence of a placental immune response to DEP, potentially due to analysis too late in gestation. </p><p>The second set of experiments characterized the enduring behavioral and metabolic consequences of maternal consumption of a "Western diet" (HFD in combination with BCAA supplementation) prior to and during gestation and lactation. The adult offspring of HFD-fed dams were more anxious in adulthood, despite being placed on a low-fat diet at weaning. Male HFD offspring were also hyperactive, whereas female HFD offspring exhibited more severe metabolic disturbances. Furthermore, there was evidence of microglial priming and peripheral macrophage priming in male HFD offspring, similar to the prenatal air pollution model. The next experiment also found evidence of altered microglial development due to maternal HFD, in conjunction with widespread, sex-specific immune gene regulation in the placenta in response to maternal diet. Moreover, maternal HFD decreased placental serotonin production, and also programmed long-term alterations in serotonergic function in the prefrontal cortex of adult HFD offspring. Taken together, these experiments define sexually dimorphic innate immune mechanisms in the placenta and developing brain that may underlie the long-term metabolic and behavioral consequences of maternal environmental exposures.</p> / Dissertation

<p>Opioid drug abuse represents a serious public health concern with few effective therapeutic strategies. A primary goal for researchers modeling substance abuse disorders has been the delineation of the biological and environmental factors that shape an individual’s susceptibility or resistance to the reinforcing properties of abused substances. Early-life environmental conditions are frequently implicated as critical mediators for later-life health outcomes, although the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie these effects have historically been challenging to identify. Previous work has shown that a neonatal handling procedure in rats (which promotes enriched maternal care) attenuates morphine conditioning, reduces morphine-induced glial activation in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), and increases microglial expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10). The experiments described in this dissertation were thus designed to address if inflammatory signaling in the NAc may underlie the effects of early-life experience on later-life opioid drug-taking. The results demonstrate that neonatal handling attenuates intravenous self-administration of the opioid remifentanil in a drug concentration-dependent manner. Transcriptional profiling of the NAc reveals a suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine signaling molecules and an increase in anti-inflammatory IL-10 in handled rats following repeated exposure to remifentanil. To directly test the hypothesis that anti-inflammatory signaling can alter drug-taking behavior, bilateral intracranial injections of plasmid DNA encoding IL-10 (pDNA-IL-10) or control pDNA were delivered into the NAc of naïve rats. pDNA-IL-10 treatment reduces remifentanil self-administration in a drug concentration-dependent manner, similar to the previous observations in handled rats. Additional experiments confirmed that neither handling nor pDNA-IL-10 treatment alters operant responding for food or sucrose rewards. These results help define the conditions under which ventral striatal neuroimmune signaling may influence motivated behaviors for highly reinforcing opioid drugs.</p> / Dissertation

Exogenous and endogenous cannabinoids have been reported to modulate functional activities of macrophages. It is recognized that macrophages express primarily the CB2 cannabinoid receptor, but recent studies indicate that its expression is differential in relation to activation state with maximal levels occurring when cells are in "responsive" and "primed" states. The functional activities of macrophages when in these states of activation are the most susceptible to the action of cannabinoids, at least in terms of a functional linkage to the CB2. To assess the effect of cannabinoid treatment on macrophage chemotaxis and test the hypothesis that cannabinoids inhibit the chemotactic response of macrophages and microglia to endogenous and exogenous, pathogen-derived stimuli, primary murine peritoneal macrophages and neonatal rat microglia were used. Chemotaxis assays and scanning electron microscopy studies demonstrated that cannabinoids inhibit chemotaxis, a signature activity attributed to "responsive" macrophage-like cells, to the endogenous chemokine RANTES (Regulated upon Activation Normal T-cell Expressed and Secreted) and to Acanthamoeba conditioned medium containing secreted proteases. The partial agonist delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), administered in vitro, inhibited the chemotactic response of peritoneal macrophages to the chemokine RANTES and to Acanthamoeba conditioned medium. In vivo treatment with THC also resulted in inhibition of the in vitro chemotactic response of murine peritoneal macrophages to RANTES and amoebic conditioned medium. Pharmacological studies employing cannabinoid receptor agonists and antagonists demonstrated the involvement of CB2 in cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of peritoneal macrophage chemotaxis to RANTES and Acanthamoeba conditioned medium, implying that signaling through cannabinoid receptors may desensitize chemokine receptors. Treatment with cannabinoids had no apparent effect on chemokine receptor mRNA levels, but did enhance CCR5 protein phosphorylation. Macrophage migration to Acanthamoeba conditioned medium may involve activation and signaling through protease activated receptors (PARs), as pathogen-derived proteases have been shown to activate PARs and initiate cellular migration; however, further studies are required to demonstrate PAR activation by amoebic conditioned medium and to assess the effects of cannabinoids on PAR signaling. Acanthamoeba are opportunistic pathogens that cause Granulomatis amoebic encephalitis, an infection of the CNS that is often fatal. THC treatment has been shown to increase mortality to Acanthamoeba infections and is characterized by an absence of granuloma formation. We hypothesize that inhibitory effect of THC on macrophage migration may be a key factor in cannabinoid-mediated immunosuppression. To assess the effect of cannabinoids on microglial migration to Acanthamoeba conditioned medium, chemotaxis assays were performed using primary rat microglia treated with cannabinoids. These studies demonstrated that cannabinoids inhibit microglial chemotaxis to amoebic conditioned medium. Furthermore, the studies demonstrate that cannabinoids, acting through cannabinoid receptors, may cross-talk with a diverse array G-protein coupled receptors so as to modulate responsiveness of macrophage and macrophage-like cells.

Mounting evidence indicates an involvement of inflammation in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. While there are other mechanisms involved, it is this role of inflammatory processes that we wish to investigate. Triptolide is the major constituent in the Chinese herb, Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F, and has been used for centuries as part of Chinese herbal medicine. The four ringed structure has close homology to drugs of the steroid class and it has been shown to be beneficial as an anti-inflammatory for rheumatoid arthritis and for treatment of certain cancers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential therapeutic effect of Triptolide on the neuropathology and deficits of spatial 6 learning and memory in amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin 1 (PS1) doubletransgenic mice, a well established Alzheimer’s disease (AD) mouse model. After treatment of APP/PS1 mice with Triptolide (40μg/kg, three times weekly,), initiated when the mice were 5 months old, for as little as 8 weeks, significant decrease in β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition and microglia activation was observed. Moreover, Triptolide treatment robustly rescued spatial memory deficits observed in APP/PS1 mice. However, APP processing, tau hyperphosphorylation, and the activities of the two major kinases involved in tau hyperphosphorylation, cyclin dependent kinase 5 (cdk5) and glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) were not affected by the Triptolide treatment. Based on the recent finding for the inhibitory effect of Triptolide on Aβ-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines from microglia, we propose that Triptolide treatment may have beneficial properties in halting glial activation and help restore an immune system that fights plaque deposition. Although the exact mechanism of action has yet to be deduced, the increase in APP CTFs while having a significant decrease in amyloid plaque deposition suggests that alterations in gamma secretase activity may be a possible answer. Currently, these results support the use of Triptolide as an effective therapeutic to prevent the progression of Alzheimer’s disease.

Au vu de la relative inefficacité des traitements actuels de la douleur cancéreuse osseuse (DCO) il est devenu nécessaire aujourd'hui d'identifier de nouvelles cibles (cellulaires et/ou moléculaires) pour développer de nouveaux outils thérapeutiques. Dans ce contexte, ces dernières années, de nombreuses études ont suggéré que les cellules gliales, principalement les astrocytes et la microglie, pourraient contribuer au développement et au maintien de la douleur chronique. D'autre part, dans des modèles d'études précliniques de la DCO, plusieurs auteurs ont récemment constaté une réactivité astrocytaire importante dans les cornes dorsales de la moelle épinière et ont montré que, si on empêche cette réactivité, les symptômes douloureux sont diminués. Cependant, la relation exacte existant entre la réactivité des cellules gliales et les symptômes douloureux en condition de DCO est inconnue. Afin de décrypter cette relation, nous avons dans un premier temps étudié le décours temporel des comportements douloureux et caractérisé l’état de sensibilisation centrale dans un modèle de DCO chez le rat induit par l'injection de cellules de carcinome glandulaire mammaire (MRMT-1) dans le tibia. Nous montrons par des approches radiologiques, comportementales (tests de douleur évoquée et de distribution pondérale dynamique) et immunohistochimiques (immunodétection de la protéine Fos après palpation non douloureuse de la patte) que les animaux cancéreux MRMT développent graduellement une tumeur osseuse (premiers signes au 10ème jour post-inoculation), une allodynie et une hyperalgésie mécaniques (à partir du 10ème jour) et thermiques (à partir du 14ème jour), un inconfort de la patte injectée (à partir du 14ème jour ) et des phénomènes de sensibilisation centrale. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons recherché des indices structuraux et fonctionnels de réactivité gliale spinale dans notre modèle de DCO. L'objectif était donc de dater l'apparition de la réactivité gliale, et de déterminer la nature des cellules gliales impliquées : microglie et/ou astrocytes. Nous montrons par des approches immunohistochimiques qu’aucun signe morphologique de réactivité astrocytaire ni microgliale n’est observable pendant l’établissement et le maintien de la DCO alors que ces signes existent dans un modèle de douleur neuropathique (ligature de nerfs spinaux). De plus, par des approches moléculaire (qRT-PCR) et biochimique (technique du Bio-Plex) nous montrons que, parmi les 20 marqueurs structuraux et fonctionnels de réactivité gliale testés, seule l’expression de l’aquaporine 4 (un canal à eau spécifique des astrocytes) est significativement augmentée en condition de DCO. Nos résultats suggèrent donc que les astrocytes et les cellules microgliales jouent des rôles différents dans la douleur cancéreuse et dans la douleur neuropathique. Enfin, dans un troisième temps, nous avons cherché à mettre en évidence une implication des astrocytes dans la pathologie DCO au travers d’une caractérisation des transmissions glutamatergique et glycinergique, qui sont toutes deux fortement modulées par l’environnement astrocytaire. Par la quantification de l’expression de l’ARNm (qRT-PCR) et par dosage des taux d’acides aminés (électrophorèse capillaire), nous montrons que les principaux acteurs (transporteurs, récepteurs, agonistes et co-agonistes) de la transmission glutamatergique et glycinergique spinale ne subissent pas d’altération significative en condition de DCO. En conclusion, nous montrons que des symptômes douloureux chroniques peuvent se développer et se maintenir (1) sans signe d’astrogliose et de réactivité microgliale spinale ; et (2) sans altération de l’expression des principaux acteurs de la transmission spinale glutamatergique et glycinergique. Nos résultats invitent donc à revoir le lien très fort qui est fait actuellement entre douleur chronique et astrogliose. / The relative lack of efficiency of current treatments used to relieve bone cancer pain prompts to the identification of new molecular and/or cellular targets for the development of new therapeutic strategies. In that context, a large number of recent studies have suggested the involvement of glial cells, among which astrocytes and microglial cells, in the onset and maintenance of chronic pain symptoms. In few animal models of bone cancer pain, several authors have recently evidenced an increased glial reactivity in spinal cord dorsal horn, and demonstrated that preventing astrocytic reactivity was sufficient to reduce pain symptoms in these models. However, the exact relationship of glial reactivity with bone cancer pain symptoms remains poorly understood. In order to decipher this link, we have first studied the temporal development of pain symptoms, and characterized the degree of central sensitization in a rat model of bone cancer pain induced by the injection of mammary gland carcinoma cells (MRMT-1) in the tibial bone. Using radiologic assessment of tumor development, behavioral measurements to quantify evoked (von Frey hairs) and spontaneous (dynamic weight bearing) pain and immunodetection of Fos after non nociceptive palpation of cancer bearing limb, we demonstrate that animals injected with MRMT-1 cells gradually develop a bone tumor (first detectable 10 days after inoculation), a mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia (first noticeable at day 10), and later on a thermal allodynia and hyperalgesia (first detectable at day 14) as well as discomfort of the injected limb (day 14) and finally central sensitization phenomenons. Second, we have investigated the presence of structural and functional markers of spinal glial reactivity in our model of bone cancer pain. Our objectives were to date the onset of spinal glial reactivity, for microglial and astrocytic cells. Using immunohistochemical approaches, we show that none of the classical markers of astrocytic and microglial reactivity can be observed during the onset and the persistent phase of bone cancer pain whereas the markerswere easily identified in a neuropathic pain model (spinal nerve ligation). Furthermore, using molecular (qRT-PCR) as well as biochemical (Bio-Plex) approaches, we show that among the 20 structural and functional markers of glial reactivity tested, only aquaporin-4 displays increased mRNA levels in bone cancer pain model. Hence, our results suggest that astrocytes and microglial cells play different roles in bone cancer and neuropathic pain. Finally, we tried to evidence the involvement of astrocytes in bone cancer pain by characterizing glutamatergic and glycinergic synaptic transmission, both of which are heavily modulated by astrocytic environment. By quantifying mRNA levels (qRT-PCR) and measuring the level of inhibitory and excitatory amino acids (capillary electrophoresis), we show that the main actors (transporters, receptors, agonists and co-agonists) of glutamatergic and glycinergic transmissions in the spinal cord do not undergo any significant alteration in bone cancer pain conditions. We conclude that chronic painful symptoms may develop and persist (1) without any sign of astrogliosis or enhanced microglial reactivity in the spinal cord, and (2) without any alteration in the expression/levels of the main actors involved in glutamatergic and glycinergic transmission. These results therefore question the strong link that is frequently made between astrogliosis and chronic pain.

Le système de l’immunité innée cérébrale (SIIC) est principalement composé des cellules microgliales. En réponse à des stimuli immuns, inflammatoires ou un trauma neurologique, la microglie s’active et produit des facteurs pro et anti-inflammatoires qui d’une part coordonnent la réponse de l’immunité innée cérébrale et d’autre part modulent l’activité neuronale et, in fine, le comportement. Plus récemment, les cellules microgliales se sont révélées jouer un rôle clé dans le développement cérébral. Ainsi, par leurs activités de phagocytose, elles participent à la maturation des réseaux neuronaux. Si l’activation du SIIC permet de défendre le tissu cérébral des agressions, l’activation prolongée des cellules microgliales a aussi des effets délétères. Ainsi, dans le cerveau adulte, la production soutenue de cytokines inflammatoires contribue au développement de pathologies neurodégénératives. Au cours du développement les stimuli inflammatoires, en perturbant l’activité des cellules microgliales conduisent à une dysfonction de circuits neuronaux qui pourrait être impliquée dans des pathologies neuropsychiatriques à composante neurodéveloppementale. La compréhension de la régulation des cellules microgliales et de leur réponse est donc capitale. L’activité microgliale repose sur ses propriétés morphologique, dynamique et sa communication avec les neurones qui impliquent des profils de synthèse de facteurs (cytokines, chemokines, facteurs de croissance, etc..) et de récepteurs particuliers, la polarisation vers un phénotype pro ou anti-inflammatoire et la phagocytose. Peu d’études ont caractérisé l’ensemble des propriétés morphofonctionnelles des cellules microgliales in vivo. Par la combinaison d’approches de FACS, immunohistochimie, microscopie confocale et reconstruction en 3D, microscopie bi-photonique et dosage des facteurs de communication, il est aujourd’hui possible de mieux caractériser ces cellules afin de comprendre leur régulation par l’environnement et l’impact (bénéfique ou délétère) sur les fonctions neuronales. L’objectif général de cette thèse a été d’étudier les propriétés morphofonctionnelles des cellules microgliales in vivo dans deux situations physiopathologiques, une inflammation induite par l’administration périphérique de lipopolysaccharide (LPS) et une déficience alimentaire en acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI) de type n-3, connus pour leurs propriétés immunomodulatrices. La première étude nous a permis de développer des outils nécessaires à l’étude de la plasticité morphofonctionnelle de la microglie et d’apporter de nouveaux éléments de compréhension de l’impact d’une inflammation périphérique sur l’activité de ces cellules in vivo. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous avons montré pour la première fois que le statut alimentaire maternel en AGPI n-3 influence les propriétés morphofonctionnelles des cellules microgliales au cours du développement post-natal ainsi que l’activité des réseaux neuronaux. De façon générale, nos résultats apportent des éléments de compréhension des relations entre plasticité morphologique et fonctionnelle des cellules microgliales in vivo. / The brain innate immune system is mainly composed of microglial cells. Microglia are activated in response to an immune or inflammatory stimuli or a trauma, and then produce pro- and anti-inflammatory factors. These factors drive the innate immune response and can modulate neuronal activity and in fine, learning and memory. Recently, microglia have been shown to play a key role during brain development. Via their phagocytic activity, microglial cells can participate to neuronal networks maturation. Although brain innate immune system defends brain tissue from aggression, chronic activation of microglia can also be deleterious. In the adult brain, chronic production of inflammatory cytokines can contribute to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. During development, inflammatory stimuli modifying microglia activity and homeostasis could lead to neuropsychiatric diseases with a neurodevelopmental origin. Understanding how microglia are regulated and how they respond to various stimuli is therefore crucial.Microglia activity is characterized by morphological and dynamic properties of microglia,by its communication with neurons by its polarization into a specific phenotype, and by their phagocytic profile. Few studies have characterized all the morphofunctional properties of microglial cells in vivo. Using a combination of approaches including FACS, immunohistochemistry, confocal microscopy, 3D reconstruction, two-photon microscopy and communication factors assays, it is now possible to better characterize these cells in order to understand their regulation by the environment and the resulting impact (beneficial or deleterious) on neuronal functions. The main goal of this thesis was to study the morphofunctional properties of microglial cells in vivo in two pathophysiological states: a peripheral inflammation induced by a peripheral injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and in an n-3 PUFAs nutritional state. In the first study, we developed tools to investigate microglial morphofunctional plasticity and gained a better understanding of the impact of peripheral inflammation on the activity of these cells in vivo. In the second part of this thesis, we showed for the first time that maternal nutritional status in n-3 PUFAs affect the morphofunctional properties of microglial cells and the establishment of neural circuits during the postnatal development of the pups. Overall, our results provide new insights in the relationship between morphological and functional plasticity of microglial cells in vivo.

Les microglies, les cellules de l’immunité innée, résidentes du cerveau, sont impliquées dans la réponse inflammatoire cérébrale et le modelage des réseaux neuronaux au cours du développement. La perturbation de leurs activités par des stimuli environnementaux pouvant conduire à des altérations psychopathologiques, dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle des microglies dans les effets neurobiologiques et comportementaux d’un stimulus inflammatoire. Les travaux précédents ont révélé que l’administration de lipopolysaccharide (LPS), une endotoxine bactérienne, provoque des comportements de type dépressifs. Le rôle des microglies dans ces altérations a fait l’objet de la première étude de cette thèse (Chapitre 2). Afin de dépléter les microglies du cerveau, des souris adultes ont reçu par voie d’administration intra-hippocampique des liposomes contenant du clodronate, provoquant ainsi l’apoptose des microglies phagocytaires. L’administration de LPS active dans l’hippocampe la synthèse de cytokines pro-inflammatoires [interleukine (IL)-1b et facteur de nécrose tumorale (TNF)-a] et anti-inflammatoires (IL-10), et de l'indoleamine 2,3-dioxygénase, une enzyme impliquée dans le métabolisme du tryptophane aux activités pro-dépressives. La déplétion des microglies phagocytaires atténue les effets du LPS, à l’exception de l’IL-1b, dont l’expression est exacerbée. De plus, l’administration de clodronate prévient les effets du LPS sur les comportements de type dépressif. Dans leur ensemble, ces résultats ont révélé que les microglies phagocytaires sont impliquées dans les effets inflammatoires et comportementaux de type dépressif induits par le LPS. Nous avons ensuite étudié le rôle des microglies dans les effets comportementaux d’une inflammation maternelle précoce provoquée lors de la colonisation du cerveau fœtal par les microglies (Chapitres 3 & 4). Ainsi, nous avons administré au jour gestationnel (JG)9.5 du LPS à des souris gestantes et évalué la trajectoire développementale pré- et post-natale des microglies et du comportement de la progéniture (Chapitre 3). L’administration de LPS à JG9.5 provoque une réduction du pourcentage représenté par les microglies matures aux JG14.5 et 18.5 et des déficits comportementaux persistants à l’âge adulte avec un dimorphisme sexuel prononcé. Nous avons alors recherché à identifier les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans les effets du LPS administré à JG9.5, en étudiant la piste de l’action des cytokines inflammatoires (Chapitre 4). Pour cela, nous nous sommes focalisé sur l’IL-1b, la cytokine inflammatoire effectrice principale de l’activité microgliale. L’expression de l'IL-1b et des cytokines associées (IL-6, TNFa et IL-10) augmente dans le plasma maternel, le placenta et le cerveau fœtal, 2 et 4 heures après l’administration de LPS. Ces changements sont accompagnés d'un phénotype microglial immature à JG18.5 et d’une réduction de la population microgliale totale au jour postnatal (JPN)9. À l’âge adulte (JPN65), nous avons observé une modification morphologique de la microglie dans plusieurs structures cérébrales. Enfin, les souris adultes, prénatalement traitées au LPS, développent des altérations des comportements de type sociaux et des comportements répétitifs. Les altérations du nombre de microglies induites par le LPS sont corrélées aux troubles comportementaux, et ce, de façon spécifique en fonction du sexe des souris. Enfin, la co-administration de l'antagoniste du récepteur de l'IL-1 et de LPS chez les femelles gestantes au JG9.5 réduit, voire prévient les effets inflammatoires et comportementaux du LPS. [...] / Recent research on microglia has uncovered a multitude of activities that extends the role of these cells well beyond their traditional function as immune sentinels. The most prominent of these newly described activities is an intricate role in neuronal network remodeling notably upon environmental challenge or during brain development, the disruption of which can result in long lasting consequences relevant to several psychopathologies. We sought, in the current thesis, to identify some of the mechanisms involved. Our initial approach was to target the immune function of microglia, based on our previous findings linking systemic immunogenic challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice with the development of despair-like behavior/depression. Here, we sought to identify immune mediators activated in microglia following a single systemic challenge with LPS (Chapter 2). These studies were conducted in adult mice in which phagocytic microglia were depleted using a single injection of liposomal clodronate in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. LPS challenge significantly upregulated the expression of both pro-inflammatory [interleukin (IL)-1b and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a] and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines compared to saline treated animals. In addition, LPS highly increased the expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), an important rate limiting enzyme for metabolizing tryptophan in the brain and an established indicator of the activation of this depression mediating pathway. Clodronate-mediated depletion attenuated all of these effects apart from IL-1b expression which was further exacerbated. Behavioral assessment of the mice demonstrated a significant LPS-induced increase of immobility in the forced swim test (FST), which was prevented by clodronate. This experimental approach provided a snapshot of the role of inflammation in the development of brain dysfunction mediated by microglia. In subsequent studies (chapter 3 & 4), and in order to perform a more comprehensive, longer-term investigation of microglia activity in neurodevelopment, we utilized a prenatal infection model using LPS to activate maternal immunity at a relatively early [Gestational Day (GD)9.5] time point when microglia colonize the fetal brain to assess the impact on microglial population during development and the subsequent behavior of the progeny (Chapter 3). The results demonstrated LPS reduced the percentage of mature microglial population at GD14.5 and GD18.5 representing mid to late gestation. In addition, prenatal LPS had a significant effect on the offspring’s neonatal as well as adult behavior, with a clear divergence along sex lines in adulthood. In the final study (Chapter 4), we sought to investigate the mechanisms underlying the changes we noted in microglial development and the sexually dimorphic behavioral deficits. For this, we focused on the role played by pro-inflammatory cytokines, particularly IL-1b which represents the main effector of microglial activation following infection or injury. Detailed analysis of the expression of IL-1b and other related cytokines (IL-6, TNF-a and IL-10) revealed an increased expression of these mediators in maternal plasma, placenta and fetal brain, 2 and 4 hours after the prenatal LPS treatment. These changes were accompanied with a decreased percentage of mature microglia in the brain of embryos at GD18.5 and of total microglia population at post-natal day (PND)9. In the adult offspring (PND65), we detected an increased density and altered microglial morphology in specific higher-order structures implicated in complex behaviors, as well as altered social preference and memory and increased repetitive actions. [...]

Orientador: Alexandrina Sartori / Resumo: A esclerose múltipla (EM) é uma doença inflamatória crônica e desmielinizante do sistema nervoso central (SNC). A imunopatogênese da EM envolve linfócitos Th1, Th17 e Tc autorreativos e ativação de macrófagos e microglia, os quais liberam vários mediadores pró-inflamatórios e radicais livres. Não há cura para a EM e as terapias disponíveis desencadeiam efeitos colaterais. Neste contexto, testamos o potencial terapêutico da cisteína selenizada (CS), um produto em desenvolvimento pela empresa Biorigin, no controle da encefalomielite autoimune experimental (EAE). O potencial profilático/terapêutico foi testado por administração de CS durante 30 dias (14 dias antes seguido de 16 dias pós-indução da EAE) e o potencial terapêutico por administração da CS a partir de 1 ou 7 dias após a indução da doença. Os 3 procedimentos reduziram escore clínico e incidência da EAE. A estratégia profilática/terapêutica reduziu discretamente a expressão de componentes do inflamassoma NLRP3 e o percentual de macrófagos e microglia ativada no SNC. As duas estratégias terapêuticas determinaram redução significativa no escore clínico, no percentual de macrófagos e microglia ativada e na expressão de MHCII por estas células. A terapia com CS também reduziu a ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3 e a expressão de mRNA para iNOS e CX3CR1.A redução na percentagem de células dendríticas ativadas (DCs) (CD11b+MHCII+) e o aumento no percentual de DCs tolerogênicas (CD11b-CD103+) sugere o estabelecimento deum perfil ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Its immunopathogenesis is complex and involves the interplay of distinct autoreactive T lymphocyte subsets and innate immune cells. The persistent inflammation observed in MS patients is related to oxidative stress and inflammasome activation which have been recently implicated in both, demyelination and axonal damage processes. Since the development of new therapeutic procedures remains necessary, we evaluated the efficacy of an antioxidant product to control experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) development. The selenized cysteine (SC) is an organic selenium, developed by a Brazilian company (Biorigin). For prophylactictherapeutic strategy, oral treatment with SC (45µg of selenium/dose) started 14 days before EAE induction and was daily extended until the acute phase of the disease. The precocious and delayed therapies have begun 1 or 7 days after MOG administration. The three therapeutic approaches reduced EAE incidence and clinical manifestations. Prophylactic-therapeutic strategy attenuated NLRP3 inflammasome activation and reduced the number of macrophages and activated microglia in the CNS. Precocious and delayed therapies were efficient in controlling EAE symptoms, reducing the percentage of macrophages and activated microglia and the MHCII expression. This protection was concomitant by less NLRP3 inflammasome activation and lower expression of mRNA for ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre