Para vegetação esparsa e de porte alto a determinação dos parâmetros de rugosidade é comprometida pela dificuldade em se observar condições que satisfaçam a lei logarítmica da velocidade do vento. Estimou-se o comprimento de rugosidade (z0) e o deslocamento do plano zero (d) por alguns métodos com medidas micrometeorológicas e da estrutura física de arbustos esparsos em região semi-árida, durante o experimento HAPEX-Sahel. A velocidade do vento foi medida em quatro alturas acima da superfície (3,0; 4,1; 5,3 e 8,5 m), e os fluxos determinados por correlações dos turbilhões a 9m de altura. Métodos baseados no perfil logarítmico foram aplicados em condições de atmosfera neutra. A altura média da vegetação era h = 2,06 ± 0,47 m. O método convencional (ajuste estatístico) resultou em estimativas satisfatórias de d e z0 em condições nas quais a validade do perfil logarítmico foi satisfeita. Com uma única altura de medida localizada acima da subcamada inercial as estimativas resultaram em valores ou fisicamente inconsistentes ou que não caracterizam a rugosidade da superfície. Quando se utilizou a velocidade de fricção dada pela correlação dos turbilhões na solução do perfil logarítmico, as estimativas melhoraram. A combinação do perfil logarítmico com a relação z0 = λ (h - d) proporcionou estimativas satisfatórias para os valores de λ = 0,188 e 0,190 determinados em função da estrutura física da vegetação, o que não foi observado para o valor médio da literatura (0,166). Relações entre a estrutura física da vegetação e o transporte de momentum estimaram apropriadamente d e z0. A rugosidade da área foi melhor descrita por d = 0,95 m = 0,46 h e z0 = 0,204 m = 0,1 h, sendo λ = 0,185. As velocidades horizontal do vento e de fricção foram mais sensíveis a variações em z0 do que em d. / For sparse and tall vegetation the estimate of roughness parameters is compromised by the difficulty in observing conditions that satisfy the windspeed logarithmic law. The roughness length (z0) and the zero-plane displacement (d) were estimated by some methods with micrometeorological measurements and the physical structure of sparse shrubs in semi-arid region, during the HAPEX-Sahel experiment. The wind speed was measured at four heights above of surface (3.0, 4.1, 5.3 and 8.5 m), and the turbulent flows determined by eddy correlations at the height of 9m. Methods based on the logarithmic profile have been applied in neutral atmosphere conditions. The average height of the vegetation was h = 2.06 ± 0.47 m. The conventional method (statistical fit) resulted in good estimates of d and z0 only under conditions of validity of the logarithmic law. Only one height of measurement located above of the inertial sublayer is enough to result in physically inconsistent values. When the friction velocity, given by eddy correlation, was used in the logarithmic law, the estimates improved. The combination of the logarithmic law with z0 = λ (h - d) provided satisfactory estimates of the surface roughness for λ = 0.188 and 0.190 determined in function of the physical structure of the vegetation; but for λ = 0.166, the average value of literature, the estimates where not good. Relationships between the physical structure of the vegetation and the momentum transfer estimated appropriately d and z0. The area roughness was better described by d = 0.95 m = 0.46 h and z0 = 0.204 m = 0.1 h, being λ = 0.185. Wind speed and friction velocity were more sensible to variations in z0 than in d.

Foram determinadas as taxas de evapotranspiração global (ETc) e sua partição em evapotranspiração dos renques e das entrelinhas, bem como a partição da energia disponível em calores sensível e latente de um cafezal adensado (3,50m x 0,90m), irrigado por gotejamento, durante o período de 1 a 2 anos após sua implantação, em Piracicaba, SP. Foram utilizados os métodos do balanço de energia-razão de Bowen (MRB) e aerodinâmico (MA) para a determinação de ETc, o método lisimétrico para a evapotranspiração dos renques e o método do balanço de calor no caule para a transpiração a partir do fluxo de seiva. No uso do MA, foram verificados vários problemas. Um deles, é o aumento inicial pequeno do "deslocamento do plano zero" (d) normalizado pela altura da cultura, ter sido seguido por um decréscimo teoricamente inconsistente com o aumento da altura dos cafeeiros, além de uma grande variação do comprimento de rugosidade (zo), dependente das condições de cobertura das entrelinhas, da direção e da velocidade do vento, sendo evidenciado efeito dessas últimas duas variáveis também sobre d. Provavelmente, a maior fonte de erro para o MA foi terem os coeficientes de transporte turbulento, determinados com as funções empíricas do número de Richardson de estabilidade atmosférica, válidas para a subcamada atmosférica inercial e superfícies homogêneas, mostrado-se inadequados para as condições do estudo, resultando em valores irreais de ETc. As estimativas pelo MRB foram satisfatórias, por ter ocorrido boa similaridade entre os perfis de temperatura e de pressão de vapor do ar, indicando que a razão entre os coeficientes de difusão turbulenta para calor sensível e latente se manteve próxima de 1. Durante o período seco, grande parte dos dias tiveram as determinações de ETc pelo MRB comprometidas, devido aos pequenos gradientes de pressão de vapor e aos erros causados pelos sensores dos psicrômetros. O fluxo de calor latente do cafezal correspondeu a mais de 80% da energia disponível no período úmido, diminuindo para valores da ordem de 64% no período seco. Os valores do coeficiente "global" de cultura (razão entre ETc e a evapotranspiração de referência (ETo)), variaram entre 1,04 e 1,30, sendo altamente dependentes das condições de umidade do solo. No último período de medida, o valor de aproximadamente 0,86 deve ser tomado com ressalvas devido a problemas de manejo da área. O "coeficiente de evapotranspiração do renque", sendo a razão entre a evapotranspiração do renque (evaporação do solo da área contínua sob as copas mais a transpiração dos cafeeiros) e ETo, variou entre 0,22 e 0,43, sendo influenciado pelas condições de umidade da superfície, especialmente pela área molhada na irrigação, e pelo aumento da área foliar dos cafeeiros. Os valores do coeficiente basal de cultura (razão entre transpiração dos cafeeiros e ETo) variaram de 0,03 a 0,20. Durante o período seco evidenciou-se efeito advectivo sobre as medidas, adotando-se critérios para selecionar dias com tal efeito nulo, ou mínimo, sobre os valores médios dos coeficientes acima. / The objectives of this study were to evaluate the magnitude of global evapotranspiration (ETc) in a high density young coffee crop (3.5mx0.9m) under drip irrigation, the ETc partition considering hedgerows and interrows, and the partition of the available radiant energy between sensible and latent heat fluxes. The experiments were conducted from September 2002 to September 2003, in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. ETc was determined by the Energy balance-Bowen ratio (BRM) and aerodynamic (AM) methods. Hedgerows evapotranspiration was measured by weighing lysimeters and coffee transpiration by the sap flow using the stem heat balance method. When AM was used, several problems were observed. One of them was the "zero plane displacement" (d) normalized by the crop height, which showed an earlier small increase, followed by an unexplained decrease when plant height increased, besides of a huge variation of the roughness length (zo), which depended on interrows cover conditions and wind direction and speed. Also, the effect of these former was noticed on d. Probably, the major source of error in AM was the use of turbulent transport coefficients determined with empirical functions, using the Richardson number, valid for homogeneous surfaces, and measurements taken on the inertial atmospheric sublayer. This procedure proved to be inadequate for the heterogeneous coffee crop surface, resulting in unrealistic ETc values. The BRM estimates of ETc were more appropriate, as a consequence of the good similarity between potential temperature and vapor pressure profiles, indicating that the ratio between the turbulent transport coefficients for sensible and latent heat was close to unity. During the dry season, in the majority of the days with measurements, ETc estimates were less effective due the small vapor pressure gradients and the errors caused by the psychrometer sensors. The ratio between global latent heat flux and available surface energy was higher than 80% in the wet season, decreasing to 64% when the interrows were drying. The "global" crop coefficient (Kc), representing the ratio between ETc and reference evapotranspiration (ETo) ranged from 1.04 to 1.30, being highly dependent on soil moisture conditions. In the latest period of measurements, Kc was about 0.86, which must be analyzed with care due problems in the coffee crop management. The "hedgerows evapotranspiration coefficient", which means the ratio between hedgerows evapotranspiration (evaporation of continuous soil area under hedgerows plus the crop transpiration) and ETo, ranged from 0.22 to 0.43, being influenced by soil moisture, especially by the soil surface area wetted by the drip irrigation and by the increase of leaf area. The basal crop coefficient (ratio between transpiration and ETo) ranged from 0.03 to 0.20. During the dry season, effect of advection on the measurements was observed; so, some criteria were used to select days in which this effect was considered to be null or having a minimum degree, in order to calculate the mean values of the above described coefficients.

Foram determinadas as taxas de evapotranspiração global (ETc) e sua partição em evapotranspiração dos renques e das entrelinhas, bem como a partição da energia disponível em calores sensível e latente de um cafezal adensado (3,50m x 0,90m), irrigado por gotejamento, durante o período de 1 a 2 anos após sua implantação, em Piracicaba, SP. Foram utilizados os métodos do balanço de energia–razão de Bowen (MRB) e aerodinâmico (MA) para a determinação de ETc, o método lisimétrico para a evapotranspiração dos renques e o método do balanço de calor no caule para a transpiração a partir do fluxo de seiva. No uso do MA, foram verificados vários problemas. Um deles, é o aumento inicial pequeno do “deslocamento do plano zero” (d) normalizado pela altura da cultura, ter sido seguido por um decréscimo teoricamente inconsistente com o aumento da altura dos cafeeiros, além de uma grande variação do comprimento de rugosidade (zo), dependente das condições de cobertura das entrelinhas, da direção e da velocidade do vento, sendo evidenciado efeito dessas últimas duas variáveis também sobre d. Provavelmente, a maior fonte de erro para o MA foi terem os coeficientes de transporte turbulento, determinados com as funções empíricas do número de Richardson de estabilidade atmosférica, válidas para a subcamada atmosférica inercial e superfícies homogêneas, mostrado-se inadequados para as condições do estudo, resultando em valores irreais de ETc. As estimativas pelo MRB foram satisfatórias, por ter ocorrido boa similaridade entre os perfis de temperatura e de pressão de vapor do ar, indicando que a razão entre os coeficientes de difusão turbulenta para calor sensível e latente se manteve próxima de 1. Durante o período seco, grande parte dos dias tiveram as determinações de ETc pelo MRB comprometidas, devido aos pequenos gradientes de pressão de vapor e aos erros causados pelos sensores dos psicrômetros. O fluxo de calor latente do cafezal correspondeu a mais de 80% da energia disponível no período úmido, diminuindo para valores da ordem de 64% no período seco. Os valores do coeficiente “global” de cultura (razão entre ETc e a evapotranspiração de referência (ETo)), variaram entre 1,04 e 1,30, sendo altamente dependentes das condições de umidade do solo. No último período de medida, o valor de aproximadamente 0,86 deve ser tomado com ressalvas devido a problemas de manejo da área. O “coeficiente de evapotranspiração do renque”, sendo a razão entre a evapotranspiração do renque (evaporação do solo da área contínua sob as copas mais a transpiração dos cafeeiros) e ETo, variou entre 0,22 e 0,43, sendo influenciado pelas condições de umidade da superfície, especialmente pela área molhada na irrigação, e pelo aumento da área foliar dos cafeeiros. Os valores do coeficiente basal de cultura (razão entre transpiração dos cafeeiros e ETo) variaram de 0,03 a 0,20. Durante o período seco evidenciou-se efeito advectivo sobre as medidas, adotando-se critérios para selecionar dias com tal efeito nulo, ou mínimo, sobre os valores médios dos coeficientes acima. / The objectives of this study were to evaluate the magnitude of global evapotranspiration (ETc) in a high density young coffee crop (3.5mx0.9m) under drip irrigation, the ETc partition considering hedgerows and interrows, and the partition of the available radiant energy between sensible and latent heat fluxes. The experiments were conducted from September 2002 to September 2003, in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. ETc was determined by the Energy balance–Bowen ratio (BRM) and aerodynamic (AM) methods. Hedgerows evapotranspiration was measured by weighing lysimeters and coffee transpiration by the sap flow using the stem heat balance method. When AM was used, several problems were observed. One of them was the “zero plane displacement” (d) normalized by the crop height, which showed an earlier small increase, followed by an unexplained decrease when plant height increased, besides of a huge variation of the roughness length (zo), which depended on interrows cover conditions and wind direction and speed. Also, the effect of these former was noticed on d. Probably, the major source of error in AM was the use of turbulent transport coefficients determined with empirical functions, using the Richardson number, valid for homogeneous surfaces, and measurements taken on the inertial atmospheric sublayer. This procedure proved to be inadequate for the heterogeneous coffee crop surface, resulting in unrealistic ETc values. The BRM estimates of ETc were more appropriate, as a consequence of the good similarity between potential temperature and vapor pressure profiles, indicating that the ratio between the turbulent transport coefficients for sensible and latent heat was close to unity. During the dry season, in the majority of the days with measurements, ETc estimates were less effective due the small vapor pressure gradients and the errors caused by the psychrometer sensors. The ratio between global latent heat flux and available surface energy was higher than 80% in the wet season, decreasing to 64% when the interrows were drying. The “global” crop coefficient (Kc), representing the ratio between ETc and reference evapotranspiration (ETo) ranged from 1.04 to 1.30, being highly dependent on soil moisture conditions. In the latest period of measurements, Kc was about 0.86, which must be analyzed with care due problems in the coffee crop management. The “hedgerows evapotranspiration coefficient”, which means the ratio between hedgerows evapotranspiration (evaporation of continuous soil area under hedgerows plus the crop transpiration) and ETo, ranged from 0.22 to 0.43, being influenced by soil moisture, especially by the soil surface area wetted by the drip irrigation and by the increase of leaf area. The basal crop coefficient (ratio between transpiration and ETo) ranged from 0.03 to 0.20. During the dry season, effect of advection on the measurements was observed; so, some criteria were used to select days in which this effect was considered to be null or having a minimum degree, in order to calculate the mean values of the above described coefficients.

Para vegetação esparsa e de porte alto a determinação dos parâmetros de rugosidade é comprometida pela dificuldade em se observar condições que satisfaçam a lei logarítmica da velocidade do vento. Estimou-se o comprimento de rugosidade (z0) e o deslocamento do plano zero (d) por alguns métodos com medidas micrometeorológicas e da estrutura física de arbustos esparsos em região semi-árida, durante o experimento HAPEX-Sahel. A velocidade do vento foi medida em quatro alturas acima da superfície (3,0; 4,1; 5,3 e 8,5 m), e os fluxos determinados por correlações dos turbilhões a 9m de altura. Métodos baseados no perfil logarítmico foram aplicados em condições de atmosfera neutra. A altura média da vegetação era h = 2,06 ± 0,47 m. O método convencional (ajuste estatístico) resultou em estimativas satisfatórias de d e z0 em condições nas quais a validade do perfil logarítmico foi satisfeita. Com uma única altura de medida localizada acima da subcamada inercial as estimativas resultaram em valores ou fisicamente inconsistentes ou que não caracterizam a rugosidade da superfície. Quando se utilizou a velocidade de fricção dada pela correlação dos turbilhões na solução do perfil logarítmico, as estimativas melhoraram. A combinação do perfil logarítmico com a relação z0 = λ (h - d) proporcionou estimativas satisfatórias para os valores de λ = 0,188 e 0,190 determinados em função da estrutura física da vegetação, o que não foi observado para o valor médio da literatura (0,166). Relações entre a estrutura física da vegetação e o transporte de momentum estimaram apropriadamente d e z0. A rugosidade da área foi melhor descrita por d = 0,95 m = 0,46 h e z0 = 0,204 m = 0,1 h, sendo λ = 0,185. As velocidades horizontal do vento e de fricção foram mais sensíveis a variações em z0 do que em d. / For sparse and tall vegetation the estimate of roughness parameters is compromised by the difficulty in observing conditions that satisfy the windspeed logarithmic law. The roughness length (z0) and the zero-plane displacement (d) were estimated by some methods with micrometeorological measurements and the physical structure of sparse shrubs in semi-arid region, during the HAPEX-Sahel experiment. The wind speed was measured at four heights above of surface (3.0, 4.1, 5.3 and 8.5 m), and the turbulent flows determined by eddy correlations at the height of 9m. Methods based on the logarithmic profile have been applied in neutral atmosphere conditions. The average height of the vegetation was h = 2.06 ± 0.47 m. The conventional method (statistical fit) resulted in good estimates of d and z0 only under conditions of validity of the logarithmic law. Only one height of measurement located above of the inertial sublayer is enough to result in physically inconsistent values. When the friction velocity, given by eddy correlation, was used in the logarithmic law, the estimates improved. The combination of the logarithmic law with z0 = λ (h - d) provided satisfactory estimates of the surface roughness for λ = 0.188 and 0.190 determined in function of the physical structure of the vegetation; but for λ = 0.166, the average value of literature, the estimates where not good. Relationships between the physical structure of the vegetation and the momentum transfer estimated appropriately d and z0. The area roughness was better described by d = 0.95 m = 0.46 h and z0 = 0.204 m = 0.1 h, being λ = 0.185. Wind speed and friction velocity were more sensible to variations in z0 than in d.

Studies of trace gas fluxes have advanced the understanding of bulk interactions between the atmosphere and ecosystems. Micrometeorological instrumentation is currently unable to resolve vertical scalar sources and sinks within plant canopies. Inverted analytical Lagrangian equations provide a non-intrusive method to calculate source distributions. These equations are based on Taylor's (1921) description of scalar dispersion, which requires a measure of the degree of correlation between turbulent motions, defined by the Lagrangian length scale (L). Inverse Lagrangian (IL) analyses can be unstable, and the uncertainty in L leads to uncertainty in source predictions. A review of the literature on studies using IL analysis with various scalars in a multitude of canopy types found that parameterizations where L reduces to zero at the ground produce better results in the IL analysis than those that increase closer to the ground, but no individual L parameterization gives better results than any other does. The review also found that the relationship between L and the measurable Eulerian length scale (Le) may be more complex in plant canopies than the linear scaling investigated in boundary layer flows. The magnitude and profile shape of L was investigated within a corn and a forest canopy using field measurements to constrain an analytical Lagrangian equation. Measurements of net CO2 flux, soil-to-atmosphere CO2 flux, and in-canopy profiles of CO2 concentrations provided the information required to solve for L in a global optimization algorithm for half hour intervals. For dates when the corn was a strong CO2 sink, and for the majority of dates for the forest, the optimization frequently located L profiles that follow a convex shape. A constrained optimization then smoothed the profile shape to a sigmoidal equation. Inputting the optimized L profiles in the forward and inverse Lagrangian equations leads to strong correlations between measured and calculated concentrations (corn canopy: C_{calc} = 1.00C_{meas} +52.41 mumol m^{-3}, r^2 = 0.996; forest canopy: C_{calc} = 0.98C_{meas} +276.5 mumol m^{-3}, r^2 = 0.99) and fluxes (corn canopy: F_{soil} = 0.67F_{calc} - 0.12 mumol m^{-2}s^{-1}, r^2 = 0.71, F_{net} = 1.17F_{calc} + 1.97mumol m^{-2}s^{-1}, r^2 = 0.85; forest canopy: F_{soil} = 0.72F_{calc} - 1.92 mumol m^{-2}s^{-1}, r^2 = 0.18, F_{net} = 1.24F_{calc} + 0.65 mumol m^{-2}s^{-1}, r^2 = 0.88). In the corn canopy, coefficients of the sigmoidal equation were specific to each half hour and did not scale with any measured variable. Coefficients of the optimized L equation in the forest canopy scaled weakly with variables related to the stability above the canopy. Plausible L profiles for both canopies were associated with negative bulk Richardson number values. / Funding from NSERC.

Evapotransipration by vegetation cover is an important component of the water budget and energy balance in any ecosystem. A key to more improved water management therefore lies in improving our understanding of evapotranspiration, the process that drives water use by plants. Estimations of the turbulent fluxes are required for various applications in micrometeorology, hydrology, environmental studies and agriculture. Numerous methods for estimation of turbulent fluxes have been developed and tested. Direct measurements of fluxes are usually achieved by the eddy covariance (EC) method, which is considered as the most reliable. However, the application of the EC method is often problematic. The necessary sensors for wind, temperature and humidity must respond very fast (resolution of 10 Hz or better) and at the same time must not show noticeable drift. This makes them delicate, expensive and difficult to calibrate among other problems associated with the method. Due to their ability to integrate atmospheric processes along a path length that may range between a few hundred metres to a few kilometres, optical methods based on the analysis of scintillation appear to be an alternative and possible supplement to classical micrometeorological methods such as the EC method, which may provide local fluxes typically at the scale of 100 m. The use of the scintillometry technique in surface flux measurements is therefore gaining in popularity. The accuracy of the measurements obtained by one method is judged by comparison of the measurements obtained by those of another method considered as the standard. For turbulent flux measurements, the EC method is taken as the standard method for the determination of sensible heat fluxes. This research presents the measurement of sensible heat fluxes using the surface layer scintillometer (SLS). The SLS system used has a dual-beam and a recommended path length of between 50 and 250 m. The method was tested against the EC method for different Bowen ratio (f3) values, as required by the theory, under different atmospheric stability conditions, as well as for different wind directions relative to the SLS beam path and slanting beam path orientation. Also presented is an analysis of the different forms of the Monin-Obukhov Similarity (MOST) functions used in micrometeorology and suggested by various authors, done by comparing the resulting sensible heat flux measured by the SLS method with the ones calculated through an iterative determination of the Monin-Obukhov parameters. A comparison of the structure function parameter of temperature (Ci ) corrected for fJ and those measured (using SLS) was carried out, with the results showing very good correspondence between the corrected and uncorrected ci values, indicating that not correcting for fJ for SLS measured ci does not result in significant error in the resulting ci values, and hence sensible heat flux estimates. A comparison of the sensible heat flux Fh obtained using EC and SLS methods for fJ < 0.6 and fJ > 0.6 followed and the results also show good correspondence between the values obtained using the EC and SLS methods, although the agreement is slightly improved for cases when fJ > 0.6. A sensitivity analysis indicates that both the ECand SLS-measurements of Fh are influenced by fJ values. A sensitivity analysis on the influence of fJ on Fh measurements by both the EC and SLS methods further indicates that the influence of fJ on Fh measurements is not large enough to warrant correcting Fh measurements for fJ . The F" measurements by the EC method appears to be influenced more by fJ especially for fJ values less than 0.74. A comparison of the various methods for computing the empirical similarity functions used by MOST was also carried out and the results show a significant difference in the Fh computed following the various methods suggested by different researchers. As for the agreement between the EC and SLS methods determination of Fh for the different atmospheric stability conditions, there seems to be a better agreement in the Fh measurements as noted by correlation coefficients closer to 1 and greater tvalues obtained during unstable atmospheric conditions in the colder months of June and August while reduced agreement in the values is recorded in the warmer summer period from November to December. Also noted is a slight difference in the EC measurements compared to the SLS measurement of F". The difference in the measurements is noticed for unstable atmospheric conditions. Also noted is that EC and SLS measurements of Fh differ slightly when the atmospheric condition is nearneutral. However the agreement between the Fh values measured by the two measurement methods is still good. was set up in an inclined position, with the receiver set at 0.68 m above the ground level and transmitter at 1.68 m, resulting in an effective height difference of 1.00 m. There was generally good agreement in the 2-min measurements of F" by the two methods for the SLS set up in inclined position, with the 30-min data resulting in even better agreements. The findings confirm that the SLS set up does not impair its performance in measuring sensible heat fluxes. This also shows that the SLS would also work well in non-ideal (heterogeneous) conditions which the inclined optical beam path mimics. For those days when wind direction was mainly approximately perpendicular to the beam, the F" values obtained by SLS and EC methods are more in agreement than when the wind direction was either irregular or parallel to the SLS beam path. Wind speed also seems to influence the F" estimates by the two methods since the agreement in the Fh values obtained by the two methods is greater when wind speed is higher compared to times of the day when the wind speed is reduced. The atmospheric stability influences the peak position of footprint with the peak footprint position being further from the measurement point when the atmospheric stability condition is closer to stable as denoted by the Obukhov length of -5 and closer to the measurement point for convectively unstable atmospheric conditions as shown by the Obukhov length of -30. Also shown is that a larger fetch is required when the atmosphere is convectively unstable as indicated by the contours plotted on top of the footprint plots. In general, there seems to be very good agreement in the sensible heat flux values obtained by the two methods, especially since SLS offers areal-averaged sensible heat flux measurements compared to the EC method which basically provides a point measurement. The SLS method therefore offers a better alternative for obtaining sensible heat flux from larger and heterogeneous area - although to a limit of250 m since beyond 250 m, the method suffers from a saturation problem. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

The demand for the world’s increasingly scarce water supply is rising rapidly, challenging its availability for agriculture and other environmental uses, especially in water scarce countries, such as South Africa, with mean annual rainfall is well below the world’s average. The implementation of effective and sustainable water resources management strategies is then imperative, to meet these increasingly growing demands for water. Accurate assessment of evaporation is therefore crucial in agriculture and water resources management. Evaporation may be estimated using different micrometeorological methods, such as eddy covariance (EC), Bowen ratio energy balance (BR), surface renewal (SR), flux variance (FV), and surface layer scintillometry (SLS) methods. Despite the availability of different methods for estimating evaporation, each method has advantages and disadvantages, in terms of accuracy, simplicity, spatial representation, robustness, fetch, and cost. Invoking the shortened surface energy balance equation for which advection and stored canopy heat fluxes are neglected, the measurement of net irradiance, soil heat flux, and sensible heat flux allows the latent energy flux and hence the total evaporation amount to be estimated. The SR method for estimating sensible heat, latent energy, and other scalars has the advantage over other micrometeorological methods since it requires only measurement of the scalar of interest at one point. The SR analysis for estimating sensible heat flux from canopies involves high frequency air temperature measurements (typically 2 to 10 Hz) using 25 to 75 ìm diameter fine-wire thermocouples. The SR method is based on the idea that parcel of air near a surface is renewed by an air parcel from above. The SR method uses the square, cube, and fifth order of two consecutive air temperature differences from different time lags to determine sensible heat flux. Currently, there are three SR analysis approaches: an ideal SR analysis model based on structure function analysis; an SR analysis model with finite micro-front period; and an empirical SR analysis model based on similarity theory. The SR method based on structure function analysis must be calibrated against another standard method, such as the eddy covariance method to determine a weighting factor á which accounts for unequal heating of air parcels below the air temperature sensor height. The SR analysis model based on the finite micro-front time and the empirical SR analysis model based on similarity theory need the additional measurement of wind speed to estimate friction velocity. The weighting factor á depends on measurement height, canopy structure, thermocouple size, and the structure function air temperature lag. For this study, á for various canopy surfaces is determined by plotting the SR sensible heat flux SR H against eddy covariance EC H estimates with a linear fit forced through the origin. This study presents the use of the SR method, previously untested in South Africa, to estimate sensible heat flux density over a variety of surfaces: grassland; Triffid weed (Chromolaena odorata); Outeniqua Yellow wood (Podocarpus Falcatus) forest; heterogeneous surface (Jatropha curcas); and open water surface. The sensible heat flux estimates from the SR method are compared with measurements of sensible heat flux obtained using eddy covariance, Bowen ratio, flux variance, and surface layer scintillometer methods, to investigate the accuracy of the estimates. For all methods used except the Bowen ratio method, evaporation is estimated as a residual using the shortened energy balance from the measured sensible heat and from the additional measurements of net irradiance and soil heat flux density. Sensible heat flux SR H estimated using the SR analysis method based on air temperature structure functions at a height of 0.5 m above a grass canopy with a time lag r = 0.5 s, and á =1 showed very good agreement with the eddy covariance EC H , surface layer scintillometer SLS H , and Bowen ratio BR H estimates. The half-hourly latent energy flux estimates obtained using the SR method SR ë E at 0.5 m above the grass canopy for a time lag r = 0.5 s also showed very good agreement with EC ë E and SLS ë E . The 20-minute averages of SR ë E compared well with Bowen ratio BR ë E estimates. Sensible heat and latent energy fluxes over an alien invasive plant, Triffid weed (C. odorata) were estimated using SR , EC , FV and SLS methods. The performance of the three SR analysis approaches were evaluated for unstable conditions using four time lags r = 0.1, 0.4, 0.5, and 1.0 s. The best results were obtained using the empirical SR method with regression slopes of 0.89 and root mean square error (RMSE) values less than 30 W m-2 at measurement height z = 2.85 and 3.60 m above the soil surface for time lag r = 1.0 s. Half-hourly SR H estimates using r = 1.0 s showed very good agreement with the FV and SLS estimates. The SR latent energy flux, estimated as a residual of the energy balance ë ESR , using time lag r = 1.0 s provided good estimates of EC ë E , FV ë E , and SLS ë E for z = 2.85 and 3.60 m. The performance of the three SR analysis approaches for estimating sensible heat flux above an Outeniqua Yellow wood stand, were evaluated for stable and unstable conditions. Under stable conditions, the SR analysis approach using the micro-front time produced more accurate estimates of SR H than the other two SR analysis approaches. For unstable conditions, the SR analysis approach based on structure functions, corrected for á using EC comparisons produced superior estimates of SR H . An average value of 0.60 is found for á for this study for measurements made in the roughness sublayer. The SR latent energy flux density estimates SR ë E using SR H based on structure function analysis gave very good estimates compared with eddy covariance ( EC ë E ) estimates, with slopes near 1.0 and RMSE values in the range of 30 W m-2. The SR ë E estimates computed using the SR analysis approach using the micro-front time also gave good estimates comparable to EC ë E . The SR and EC methods were used to estimate long-term sensible heat and latent energy flux over a fetch-limited heterogeneous surface (J. curcas). The results show that it is possible to estimate long-term sensible heat and latent energy fluxes using the SR and EC methods over J. curcas. Continuous measurements of canopy height and leaf area index measurements are needed to determine á . The weighting factor á was approximately 1 for placement heights between 0.2 and 0.6 m above the Jatropha tree canopy. The daily sensible heat and latent energy flux estimates using the SR analysis gave excellent estimates of daily EC sensible heat and latent energy fluxes. Measurements of sensible heat and estimates of the latent energy fluxes were made for a small reservoir, using the SR and EC methods. The SR sensible heat flux SR H estimates were evaluated using two air temperature time lags r = 0.4 and 0.8 s at 1.0, 1.3, 1.9, 2.5 m above the water surface. An average á value of 0.175 for time lag r = 0.4 s and 0.188 for r = 0.8 s was obtained. The SR H and EC H estimates were small (-40 to 40 W m-2). The heat stored in water was larger in magnitude (-200 to 200 W m-2) compared to the sensible heat flux. The SR and EC latent energy fluxes were almost the same in magnitude as the available energy, due to the small values of the sensible heat fluxes. The daily evaporation rate ranged between 2.0 and 3.5 mm during the measurement period. The SR method can be used for routine estimation of sensible heat and latent energy fluxes with a reliable accuracy, over a variety of surfaces: short canopies, tall canopies, heterogeneous surface, and open water surface, if the weighting factor á is determined. Alternatively, the SR method can be used to estimate sensible heat flux which is exempt from calibration using the other two SR analysis approaches, with additional measurement of wind speed for estimating friction velocity iteratively. The advantages of the SR method over other micrometeorological methods are the relatively low cost, easy installation and maintenance, relatively low cost for replicate measurements. These investigations may pave the way for the creation of evaporation stations from which real-time and sub-hourly estimates of total evaporation may be obtained relatively inexpensively. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Submitted by Lucienne Costa (lucienneferreira@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-08-13T19:59:41Z No. of bitstreams: 1 FELLIPE PEREIRA DA SILVA – DISSERTAÇÃO (PPGMET) 2017.pdf: 3244729 bytes, checksum: 2fe00804be2bc30792fa334bc1456e9f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-13T19:59:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 FELLIPE PEREIRA DA SILVA – DISSERTAÇÃO (PPGMET) 2017.pdf: 3244729 bytes, checksum: 2fe00804be2bc30792fa334bc1456e9f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-16 / Capes / O principal foco desta pesquisa é a definição das características, distintas ou não, da Camada Limite Atmosférica (CLA) formada em duas diferentes situações, sob a influência de sistemas de meso e grande escalas, associados a dias chuvosos, e em dias de céu claro, na região de Fortaleza – CE, para o período pré-definido no mês de abril de 2011. Para isso, foram utilizados dados obtidos através de radiossondagem, com o cálculo da temperatura potencial, temperatura potencial virtual, perfil vertical do vento e cálculo das alturas dos níveis de pressão equivalentes aos topos das camadas identificadas. Para a confirmação dos resultados, dividiu-se o período do estudo em dois períodos menores, configurando-se duas situações, em que na primeira tem-se dias chuvosos e na segunda situação tem-se dias de céu claro. A escolha foi feita a partir da obtenção do acumulado de chuva na área de estudo e possível existência da influência de sistemas atmosféricos de escala maior. Além disso, imagens de satélite para comprovação da presença ou ausência de nebulosidade típicas dessas formações e dados de um micro radar de apontamento vertical afim de obter-se informações de refletividade também foram utilizados. Os resultados encontrados apontam para a possível influência de sistemas atmosféricos de escala maior no desenvolvimento da CLA na área costeira de Fortaleza, onde, na primeira situação a CLA se desenvolveu menos, alcançando uma profundidade menor que a CLA que se desenvolveu no dia em que não haviam sistemas atmosféricos atuantes naquela área. A partir destes resultados ainda é possível supor a influência da localização geográfica da área de estudo no desenvolvimento desta camada. Apesar de ainda serem necessários estudos mais aprofundados neste sentido, este pode ser um indicador do motivo pelo qual os resultados encontrados nesta pesquisa não estarem em concordância com os resultados clássicos presentes na literatura. / The main focus of this research is a definition of Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) characteristics, distinct or otherwise, formed in two different situations, under the influence of meso and large scale systems, associated with rainy days, and on a clear sky day, in Fortaleza - CE, for a defined period in April 2011 is the main focus of this research. For that, data obtained through radiosounding were used, with the calculation of potential temperature, virtual potential temperature, vertical wind profile and calculation of pressure levels heights equivalent to the identified layers tops. To confirm the results, the study period was divided into two smaller periods, with two scenarios, in which the first one has rainy days and in the second situation there are clear sky days. The choice was made from the accumulation of rain in the study area and possible existence of larger scale atmospheric systems influence. Besides, satellite images to prove the presence or absence of cloudiness typical of these formations and vertical pointing micro radar data to obtain reflectivity information were also used. The results show a possible influence of larger scale atmospheric systems on the ABL development in coastal area of Fortaleza, where, in the first situation, the ABL developed less, reaching a lower depth than the ABL that developed in day when there were no atmospheric systems operating in that area. From these results is possible to assume the geographic location influence of study area on the development of this layer. Although further studies are still needed in this way, this may be an indicator of why the results found in this research are not in agreement with the classic results present in literature.

This work will discuss the possible climatic impacts of the replacement of native vegetation by pastures in western Amazonia (Rondônia) during the rainy season. The aim is to contribute to a better understanding of these impacts over the local microclimate, especially the surface energy balance. Data were collected during the LBA experiment in 2002 (Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia), being used the data between February and march of this year. Measurements were performed at two experimental sites, one within a native forest (10°5 S; 61° 55 W; 120 m) and the other in the area where forest has been replaced by pasture (10° 45 S; 62° 21 W; 290 m). The results showed that the temperature in the deforested area increased on average 0.88 ° C. The pasture area also was 11% drier, with winds of 2.3 ms-1 more intense. The net radiation was also lower in deforested area, 20.41 W.m-2 on average. In what concern the turbulent fluxes of sensible and latent heat, in the in the degraded area, H presented 13.16 W.m-2 higher, and LE was 38 W.m-2 inferior. This situation is reflected in the Bowen ratio, which averaged 0.59 higher. The amount of available energy converted in air heating (H/Rn) was of 39,41% in the pasture and11,18% in the forest. The amount of available energy converted in evaporation (H/LE) in the deforested area was only 31,6%, while in the native forest was 54%. / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Neste trabalho serão discutidos os possíveis impactos microclimáticos da substituição da vegetação nativa por pastagem no Oeste da Amazônia (Rondônia) em estação chuvosa. O objetivo é contribuir para uma melhor compreensão desses impactos sobre o microclima local, em particular a balanço de energia em superfície. Os dados foram colhidos durante o experimento LBA em 2002 (Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia), sendo utilizados dados de fevereiro a março deste ano. As medidas foram realizadas em dois sítios experimentais, um no interior de uma floresta nativa (10°5 S; 61° 55 W; 120 m) e o outro em área onde a floresta foi substituída por pastagem (10° 45 S; 62° 21 W; 290 m). Os resultados mostraram que em área desmatada a temperatura aumentou, em média 0,88 °C. A área de pastagem também se mostrou 11 % mais seca, com ventos 2,3 m.s-1 mais intensos. O saldo de radiação também se mostrou inferior em área desmatada, em média 20,41 W.m-2. No que diz respeito aos fluxos turbulentos de calor sensível e calor latente em área degradada, H se apresentou 13,16 W.m-2 maior, e LE foi 38 W.m-2 inferior. Esta situação se refletiu na razão de Bowen, que foi em média 0,59 maior. A quantidade de energia disponível convertida em aquecimento do ar (H/Rn) foi de 39,41% na pastagem e 11,18% na floresta, e a quantidade de energia disponível utilizada na evaporação (H/LE) na área desmatada foi de apenas 31,6%, enquanto na área de floresta nativa foi de 54%.

Recent advances in satellite sensor technology and micrometeorological instrumentation for water flux measurement, coupled with the expansion of automatic weather station networks that provide routine measurements of near-surface climate variables, present new opportunities for combining satellite and ground-based instrumentation to obtain distributed estimates of vegetation water use over wide areas in South Africa. In this study, a novel approach is tested, which uses satellite leaf area index (LAI) data retrieved by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to inform the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith equation for calculating reference evaporation (ET₀) of vegetation phenological activity. The model (ETMODIS) was validated at four sites in three different ecosystems across the country, including semi-arid savanna near Skukuza, mixed community grassland at Bellevue, near Pietermaritzburg, and Groenkop, a mixed evergreen indigenous forest near George, to determine potential for application over wider areas of the South African land surface towards meeting water resource management objectives. At Skukuza, evaluated against 170 days of flux data measured at a permanent eddy covariance (EC) flux tower in 2007, the model (ETMODIS) predicted 194.8 mm evapotranspiration relative to 148.9 mm measured fluxes, an overestimate of 31.7 %, (r² = 0.67). At an adjacent site, evaluated against flux data measured on two discrete periods of seven and eight days in February and May of 2005 using a large aperture scintillometer (SLS), ETMODIS predicted 27.4 mm and 6.7 mm evapotranspiration respectively, relative to measured fluxes of 32.5 and 8.2 mm, underestimates of 15.7 % and 18.3 % in each case (r² = 0.67 and 0.34, respectively). At Bellevue, evaluated against 235 days of evapotranspiration data measured using a surface layer scintillometer (SLS) in 2003, ETMODIS predicted 266.9 mm evapotranspiration relative to 460.2 mm measured fluxes, an underestimate of 42 % (r² = 0.67). At Groenkop, evaluated against data measured using a SLS over three discrete periods of four, seven and seven days in February, June and September/October respectively, ETMODIS predicted 9.7 mm, 10.3 mm and 17.0 mm evapotranspiration, relative to measured fluxes of 10.9 mm, 14.6 mm and 23. 9 mm, underestimates of 22.4 %, 11.2 % and 24.1 % in each case (r² = 0.98, 0.43 and 0.80, respectively). Total measured evapotranspiration exceeded total modelled evapotranspiration in all cases, with the exception of the flux tower site at Skukuza, where evapotranspiration was overestimated by ETMODIS by 31.7 % relative to measured (EC) values for the 170 days in 2007 where corresponding modelled and measured data were available. The most significant differences in measured versus predicted data were recorded at the Skukuza flux tower site in 2007 (31.7 % overestimate), and the Bellevue SLS flux site in 2003 (42 % underestimate); coefficients of determination, a measure of the extent to which modelled data are able to explain observed data at validation periods, with just two exceptions, were within a range of 0.67 – 0.98. Several sources of error and uncertainty were identified, relating predominantly to uncertainties in measured flux data used to evaluate ETMODIS, uncertainties in MODIS LAI submitted to ETMODIS, and uncertainties in ETMODIS itself, including model assumptions, and specific uncertainties relating to various inputs; further application of the model is required to test these uncertainties however, and establish confidence limits in performance. Nevertheless, the results of this study suggest that the technique is generally able to produce estimates of vegetation water use to within reasonably close approximations of measurements acquired using micrometeorological instruments, with r² values within the range of other peer-reviewed satellite remote sensing-based approaches.