This study examined the differences between eighth grade athletes and nonathletes in terms of mathematics and reading achievement based on standardized test scores from direct cognitive assessments in mathematics and reading. The data for this study came from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class of 1998- 1999 (ECLS-K). Data were collected from student and parent surveys in conjunction with direct cognitive assessments. The research questions were as follows: 1. To what extent is there a difference in mathematics achievement between eighth grade athletes and non-athletes while controlling for self-reported future educational goals and socioeconomic status? 2. To what extent is there a difference in mathematics achievement between eighth grade athletes and non-athletes while controlling for self-reported weekly time spent on homework and socioeconomic status? 3. To what extent is there a difference in reading achievement between eighth grade athletes and non-athletes while controlling for self-reported future educational goals and socioeconomic status? 4. To what extent is there a difference in reading achievement between eighth grade athletes and non-athletes while controlling for self-reported weekly time spent on homework and socioeconomic status? iv Factorial ANOVA‘s were used answer each research question. An additional variable, gender, was utilized to further evaluate differences in mathematics and reading scale scores. Based upon the results, no statistical significance was found in the threeway interaction effects for any of the research questions. As the two-way and main effects comparisons were evaluated, statistical significance was indicated within each question based on the multiple independent variables. Overall, the athletes did not outscore non-athletes. There were consistent differences in mean scores in reading and mathematics based upon self-stated future educational goals where students maintained higher mean scores in reading and mathematics as their educational goals increased. In addition consistent differences in mean scores in reading and mathematics were indicated where students below the poverty level had lower mean scores than students at or above the poverty level. Finally, students‘ mathematics and reading achievement significantly increased as their self-reported weekly time spent on homework increased. v This study is d

University of Macau / Faculty of Education

Although more women are successfully breaching the social, economic and political barriers that can prevent them from participating as electoral candidates, few women campaign for elected office. A dearth of female candidates may be understandable, given research demonstrating that women tend to avoid competition and competitive environments. Thus, elections – competitive by design – may attract fewer women than men. This thesis posits that the inherent competitiveness of electoral politics may deter women from campaigning for office. However, this work also forwards that competitive sport socialization during adolescence may prepare women for electoral competition. This paper examines the results of a self-administered survey mailed to 449 female candidates for municipal office. The survey investigated candidates’ adolescent experiences in competitive sports and attitudes relating to internal political efficacy. The results appear to demonstrate a strong correlation between competitive sport socialization and either positive or neutral evaluations of political competition. / x, 163 leaves ; 29 cm