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This dissertation addressed knowledge gaps concerning “mastery-avoidance goals”—a construct within the prominent motivational perspective Achievement Goal Theory. Mastery-avoidance goals refer to students’ engagement in an achievement task with the purpose of avoiding failure to develop competence. While it was introduced to the achievement goal literature over a decade and a half ago, the construct of mastery-avoidance goals still lacks intuitive relevance, conceptual clarity, and evidence of prevalence among young students. In addition, so far, research has not established clear patterns of relations of mastery-avoidance goals with the other personal achievement goals (mastery-approach, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance), with contextual motivational emphases, or with adaptive and maladaptive educational outcomes. This dissertation aimed to contribute to knowledge in these gaps by investigating mastery-avoidance goals among middle school students in two subject domains that concern different types of competence: science and instrumental music. The dissertation describes two studies. In Study 1, I administered a self-report measure to middle school students (N=126) that included summated scales to investigate the empirical distinction between mastery-avoidance goals and other achievement goals, the components of its conceptual definition, its prevalence of adoption by young students in the two different domains, as well as its relations with contextual emphases and adaptive and maladaptive educational outcomes. Multidimensional scaling analysis indicated that while students in both science and instrumental music made a distinction between mastery and performance goals, these students did not make a complete distinction between mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals, at least according to the conceptual definition investigated in these studies. Regression analyses indicated that students’ perceptions of their teachers’ emphasis on mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals were significantly related to their reports of mastery-avoidance goals. Cluster analysis suggested a pattern of two general motivational profiles in the sample of more and less motivated students that differed on their simultaneous and respective high and low endorsements of both mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, sense of academic efficacy, and also academic achievement. In Study 2, I aimed to further knowledge of the meaning that students make of mastery-avoidance goals by examining students’ (N=79) qualitative responses to questions asking them to interpret items from the summated-scales self-report measure. Findings from a qualitative content analysis supported the findings from Study 1 about students’ lack of distinction between mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals, and indicated that students interpreted mastery-avoidance goals items in ways that were different from those intended by the researchers. These findings suggested that students form meanings of mastery-avoidance goals that are potentially different from the formal conceptual definition in the literature. The findings are interpreted as suggesting that students’ meaning-making about mastery-avoidance goals in both science and instrumental music may be contextualized by their personal characteristics (e.g., age), by characteristics of their school and classroom environments, and by situational characteristics (e.g., proximity of evaluative tasks). Further research should investigate systematically the different personal and contextual factors that may contribute to the meaning students make of mastery-avoidance goals. / Educational Psychology

AIDS education for adolescents has become a major concern. Not only are adolescents one of the fastest growing groups of individuals becoming infected with HIV, they are also one of the most challenging groups to reach with this vitally important information. Although previous studies have found that the content of an AIDS educational curriculum is important, they also show that teachers' presentation styles have a significant impact upon the effectiveness of lessons about AIDS. This study of twelve health and physical education teachers teaching about AIDS, looked at how their perceptions and attitudes about the task at hand influenced their teaching strategies. The study found that these twelve teachers had a variety of concerns about their roles as AIDS educators, and that their concerns impacted their level of commitment to teaching about AIDS. Through classroom observations and in-depth interviews, three distinct categorizations of commitment by the teachers were found: teachers who were "enthusiastically committed", teachers who were "unenthusiastically committed" and teachers who were "uncommitted". / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

The major purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the instructional leadership role and responsibilities of middle school assistant principals and their level of involvement in instructional leadership. Specifically, this study determined the extent of involvement of the middle school assistant principal as an instructional leader in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The data gathered compared instructional leadership tasks to various demographic variables and determined the amount of time spent performing the instructional leadership tasks. The Sources of Instructional Leadership(SOIL) survey instrument was revised and used in addition to a demographic survey to collect the data. A total of 396 surveys were mailed to middle school assistant principals across the state of Virginia. The SOIL survey includes 31 instructional leadership tasks that describe the instructional leadership responsibilities of assistant principals. The research design is non-experimental and descriptive. The methodology was a modification of the methodology used in a study conducted by Bush (1997). The design used a demographic survey, the SOIL survey and time study to collect data. The data collected answered the following research questions: 1. What instructional leadership roles and responsibilities are performed by middle school assistant principals in Virginia? 2. What is the relationship between instructional leadership responsibilities performed and specific demographic variables? 3. How much time do middle school assistant principals spend on instructional issues each week? Conclusions from the data reveal the primary instructional leadership responsibilities of Virginia middle school assistant principals are: (1) developing a school climate that is conducive to learning (2) improving student discipline, and (3) communicating a concern for student achievement. The data also indicate that older assistant principals are more involved in observing and evaluating staff than younger assistant principals. Additionally, the study found that the more instructional leaders in a school, the more involved assistant principals are with tasks that are associated with developing an academic climate. Furthermore, almost 80% of the participants indicated they spent between 10-30% of their instructional task time developing an academic climate each week. Nearly 50% of the participants spent the least amount of time on tasks that focus on coordinating the instructional program. / Ph. D.

The goal of this study was to determine what factors influence teachers in their use of discussion in the social studies classroom. I interviewed two middle school teachers and made classroom observations over a three month period. These teachers believed discussion was an important process for students to gain critical thinking and citizenship skills. These teachers believed they were conducting discussions but in fact were often conducting what Nystrand et al. (2003) termed recitation, in which students respond to questions and the teacher validates the response. The disconnect between belief and practice may be the result of a combination factors, including a lack of teacher facilitation skills, the timing of the research, and the tensions caused by the state curriculum standards. / Ph. D.

This study is an investigation into the middle school counseling programs that facilitate the early adolescent need to belong to a group. Particular focus is on the effectiveness of teacher-advisory programs, peer mediation programs, and group counseling programs, and how all three programs work together as components of a comprehensive middle school guidance program. Factors associated with successful implementation of these programs and the role of the middle school counselor in the implementation these three programs were also examined. Five middle schools were studied, using qualitative interviews of principals, counselors, and teachers. A focus group of seven to ten students was conducted at each middle school. Results provide a look at several different ways to combine the three programs in a middle school, along with factors for successful implementation. / Ph. D.

Section 504 "prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities by school districts receiving federal financial assistance" (First & Curcio, 1993, p.33). In public schools, eligible students receive an Individualized Accommodation Plan (IAP), guaranteeing a free appropriate public education (FAPE) and equitable access to educational opportunities (Bateman, 1996). Interest in Section 504 has grown among school personnel, especially in the use of this mandate for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Additionally, the number of students with IAPs has increased nationally, in Virginia, and in the school district studied (Elementary and Secondary Schools Compliance Reports, 1994 & 1997). It has been hypothesized that these increases are attributable to ADHD. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore who these adolescents are and how they are served under Section 504 policy in two middle schools in southeastern Virginia. A comparative case study design was used to explore Section 504 policy implementation through within and cross-case comparisons of data from documents and interviews with administrators and teachers about the number and content of IAPs, and decision-making pertaining to the Section 504 process. Grounded theory was used to generate propositions relative to how demographic profiles and IAP content are affected by the implementation process. Results identified relevant themes and factors as awareness of procedures, time, costs, and school profiles. The findings of this study are intended to raise stakeholder awareness about Section 504 decision-making practices and their influence on services for students, and to inform Section 504 staff developers of training needs. / Ed. D.

The purpose of this study was to determine the current level of job satisfaction among professional school counselors working in Virginia public middle schools. In addition, satisfaction levels were compared with previous studies on Virginia elementary school counselors. Although job satisfaction has been widely studied in the past, few studies have focused on professional school counselors in particular. Information regarding job satisfaction is important in order to employ and retain committed school counselors and ensure that students are receiving high quality services. Participants included 255 middle school counselors working in Virginia. Using a demographic survey and a modified version of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967), the following research questions were investigated: What is the overall job satisfaction level of Virginia middle school counselors? What degree of job satisfaction is expressed by Virginia middle school counselors in regard to each of the 20 dimensions of job satisfaction as measured by the modified MSQ? What is the relationship between selected demographic variables and work setting characteristics with the overall job satisfaction of middle school counselors in Virginia? How does the level of job satisfaction of Virginia middle school counselors compare with the level of job satisfaction for Virginia elementary school counselors in 1990, 1995, and 2001? Does the current political and social climate of the public educational system affect middle school counselors' feelings regarding their jobs and performance? Analysis determined that 92.9% of participants were satisfied with their current jobs, with social service being the area of greatest satisfaction and compensation being the area of least satisfaction. Only 7.1% of participants were dissatisfied. These findings are similar to those found in 1990, 1995, and 2001. Using a regression model, the three demographic variables of gender, licensure, and intent to remain in the position, were found to be significant predictors of overall job satisfaction. Female counselors who held a Postgraduate Professional license and intended to remain in their current position for the next five years were more satisfied than other participants. Qualitative responses indicated that middle school counselors were most affected by the current political climate in regard to standardized testing, while the social climate affected counselors in regard to the difficult challenges faced by students. The greatest impediment to the participants'preferred role was an excess of noncounseling duties, while administrators and principals provided the greatest support. Overall, the results from this study revealed that middle school counselors in Virginia were satisfied with their jobs. / Ph. D.

Does the degree of implementation of the components of the middle-school design relate to high-stakes assessment scores in Grade 8 reading and math? There currently exists a conflict between the advocates of the middle-school components and those who support an abandonment of this philosophy and conceptual model for a more conservative and curriculum centered school structure. The outcome of this study provides valuable data to resolve this debate. Socioeconomic ratios, minority percentages, and student attendance were controlled for as they impact student achievement. The middle-school concept evolved from a desire to create a more appropriate learning environment which would address the unique needs of early adolescents. Student achievement as demonstrated on the math and reading Standards of Learning tests in Virginia schools should validate this belief. The data analysis resulted in no significant difference between the reading and math scores on the Virginia state assessment for eighth-grade students in middle schools and eighth graders in other grade configured schools. The socioeconomic status of the student population of the school was the one factor that did impact the students' academic achievement. Math scores were not impacted to the same degree as the reading scores. While this research provides no concrete support for the expansion of the middle-school program, neither is there support for the assertion that it lacks rigor, and keeps students from achieving academically and therefore should be abandoned. / Ed. D.

This study examined the effects of Physical Education Television (P.E.TV) on 69 southwest Virginia middle school students' subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and attitudes toward physical activity. Four intact 8th grade physical education/health classes were selected for the study. The students were randomly assigned to the classes by school administrators at the beginning of the school year. The classes were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The treatment group (two 8th grade classes) viewed 10 P.E.TV shows over a period of nine weeks. The control group (two 8th grade classes) had physical education/health class as normal. The same teacher taught all four classes. A pre-test post-test design was used. All students filled out a pre-test questionnaire at the beginning of the 9 weeks, and a post-test questionnaire at the end of the 9 weeks. The pre and post-test questionnaires included the "Children's Attitudes Toward Physical Activity" scale to assess the student's attitudes, and questions developed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1980, 1985) to assess subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. The pre-test questionnaire also included the "Weekly Activity Checklist", which was used to categorize students into groups based on their activity level. The first three hypotheses stated that P.E.TV would have a positive influence on the students' subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and attitudes toward physical activity. These hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance, and rejected at the .05 level of significance. The fourth hypothesis stated that P.E.TV would have more of a positive influence on students categorized as "moderate to low active" than on students categorized as "high active". This attribute-treatment-interaction hypothesis was tested using a two way Analysis of Variance, and was also rejected at the .05. level. Suggestions for future studies are included in the discussion section. / Ph. D.