Thesis (M. Tech. (Environmental health)) - Central University of technology, Free State, 2013 / Introduction Dairy farms in central South Africa produce a substantial amount of milk, which is sold in Bloemfontein, Free State. Large volumes of unpasteurized (raw) milk is collected on the dairy farms, which undergoes further processing before it reaches the consumer at the end of the production line. There is a large proportion of the population that, in most cases unknowingly, consumes raw milk that has bacterial counts substantially higher than legal standards. Poor quality unpasteurized milk is either sold as fresh milk in the informal market, or as dairy products, such as cheese, manufactured from unpasteurized milk. Consumers are therefore, in most cases, unaware of the poor quality dairy products they consume. Milk quality is usually assessed in terms of bacterial content, which include Escherichia coli, coliforms and total bacterial count. The bacterial quality of milk is influenced by a number of factors, including farming practices, structural design of the milking shed, herd health and quality of water used in the dairy. If the highest level of hygiene practices is maintained, contamination of the milk by pathogenic microorganisms will be controlled, however, any drop in the vigilance of hygiene practices could result in unacceptable high levels of pathogenic microorganisms resulting in poor quality raw milk. Poor quality raw milk will inevitably result in poor quality pasteurized milk, containing unacceptably high levels of pathogenic organisms, which will eventually reach the consumer. Objectives The objectives of this study were to assess the quality of milk and influencing factors of milk produced on 83 dairy farms that supply milk intended for further processing to the greater Mangaung region, Central South Africa. Influencing factors investigated included, water quality and hygiene of milk contact surfaces, namely pulsator surfaces and milk pipeline surfaces. Methods Standard sampling procedures were followed when milk was sampled from bulk milk tanks, water at the point of use in the dairy, as well as collection of surface swabs. Escherichia coli, coliforms, total bacterial counts and somatic cell counts in milk were determined in terms of the regulations relating to milk and dairy products, and for water in terms of drinking water standards. These data were analysed and the factors that directly influence bacterial quality of milk were identified. Results 93% of the dairy farms displayed E. coli in their bulk milk containers, which did not comply with the legal standard. For coliforms, 86% of the milk samples did not comply with the legal standard. The total bacterial count of 85% of the milk samples did comply with the legal standard. The somatic cell count of 42% of the milk samples did not comply with the legal standard. The pulsator surfaces as well as the milk pipeline surfaces of 13% of the dairy farms displayed the presence of E. coli. 80% of the pulsator surfaces and 78% of the milk pipeline surfaces did comply with the legal standard pertaining to coliforms. The total bacterial count of pulsator surfaces revealed that 19% complied, whereas 29% of the milk pipeline surfaces complied with the legal standard. The water data further revealed that 31% of the dairy farms contained E. coli in the water used in the dairies. 63% of the dairy farms contained more than the allowable number of coliforms in their water. Chi-square tests revealed significant differences (p > 0.05) between the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and water; the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and milk pipeline surfaces; the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and pulsator surfaces and the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and the positioning of the cows in the milking shed. When milk quality indexes were calculated for all the farms, only four farms were classified with excellent milk, the remainder were all classified as producing poor quality milk. The hygiene quality indexes revealed that the hygiene practices on all the farms were not up to standard. Discussion and conclusion The study revealed that the milk produced for commercial processing and distribution in the greater Mangaung region of central South Africa was of poor quality. It is often mistakenly believed that the pasteurization process will remove all microorganisms from milk. As this is not the case, it is of major concern that milk delivered commercially is not of acceptable quality. Furthermore, it could be concluded that the quality of milk products from raw milk were also probably not of acceptable quality. The results further revealed that the possible contributing factors to the poor quality milk produced by the 83 commercial dairy farms were; poor quality water used in dairy sheds and contaminated milk contact surfaces. From this study it could be concluded that the overall status of milk production on the 83 commercial dairy farms studied, did not meet the standards required for milk quality, water quality and hygiene practices.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Food Technology)-Dept. of Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2007 xiii, 100 leaves / There are many ways for milk and dairy products to develop flavour defects. Sensory evaluation, has been the traditional approach to characterize off flavours. The need for odour sensing devices becomes greater when volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds are present in the product in parts per billion or even in the parts per trillion concentration range that cause off flavours. Today, sophisticated, sensitive instrumental tests such as electronic nose technology coupled with gas chromatography are capable of detecting, identifying and quantifying the specific chemical agents responsible for off flavours. This study focused on the use of the electronic nose as a novel technology for the detection and monitoring of milk quality by testing the effects of heat treatment at 63˚C and shelf life. Microbiological testing, sensory evaluation and gas chromatographic analysis were carried out together with aroma profiling using the electronic nose to determine milk quality.

As bactérias probióticas crescem lentamente em leite e a suplementação é um dos fatores que melhoram seu crescimento na produção de iogurtes funcionais ou bioiogurtes, além da aplicação em co-cultura com Streptococcus thermophilus. Desta forma, objetivou-se avaliar o efeito simultâneo da suplementação do leite com hidrolisado de caseína, proteína concentrada de soro e leite em pó desnatado na produção de bioiogurtes fermentados por Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus Acidophilus e Bifidobacterium lactis em co-culturas com Streptococcus thermophilus. A metodologia de superfície de resposta com delineamento de mistura foi empregada e diferentes composições de misturas de suplementação otimizadas foram obtidas para as diferentes co-culturas. Foi possível avaliar o efeito da suplementação simultânea do enriquecimento do leite com os três ingredientes estudados, identificar interação ocorrida entre os ingredientes e obter composições de mistura otimizadas. A co-cultura S. thermophilus e L. acidophilus obteve bons modelos preditivos e falta de ajuste não significativo para os parâmetros cinéticos tempo para se atingir pH 5,0 e 4,5 (tpH5,0 e tpH4,5). Ensaios de validação do modelo confirmaram a qualidade do ajuste. A otimização resultou composição de mistura da suplementação do leite com 50% de hidrolisado de caseína, 0% de proteína concentrada de soro e 50% de leite em pó, atende em 95% os critérios de desejabilidade. Os perfis de acidificação de culturas puras e co-culturas de Streptococcus thermophilus com Lactobacillus acidophilus em leite controle e leite suplementado no ponto ótimo foram estudados, assim como o comportamento dos bioiogurtes, usando-se a co-cultura, durante estudo de estabilidade ao armazenamento. Os parâmetros avaliados foram perda de viabilidade das bactérias, pós-acidificação e propriedades de textura. A microestrutura dos bioiogurtes obtidos com leite controle e suplementado no ponto ótimo foi analisada. Em todos os ensaios os bioiogurtes obtidos puderam ser considerados probióticos, pois as populações foram superiores ao mínimo recomendado para promoção de efeitos benéficos à saúde. O bioiogurte suplementado no ponto ótimo resultou em tempo de fermentação 32% menor em relação ao controle fermentado pela co-cultura de S. Thermophilus e L. acidophilus. A contagem de S. thermophilus permaneceu estável e de L. acidophilus decresceu durante o período de estudo de estabilidade ao armazenamento, embora as populações tenham sido superiores ao recomendado para promoção de efeitos benéficos à saúde aos 28 dias de armazenamento. A firmeza, a tensão limite τ0, os módulos de armazenamento G\' e de perda G\" do leite otimizado foram superiores ao leite controle, enquanto a porcentagem de recuperação estrutural apresentou comportamento oposto. A análise das micrografias do leite ótimo e do controle mostrou maior percentual de poros de menor diâmetro para o primeiro, indicando uma estrutura mais densa. / The probiotic bacteria develop slowly in milk and for probiotic yogurt production milk supplementation improves bacteria growth. Beyond that, use of probiotic in combination with Streptococcus thermophiles is common and recommendable. The aim of this research was to evaluate the simultaneous effect of milk supplementation with casein hydrolysate, whey protein concentrate and skim milk powder in the production of bioyogurt. Milk was fermented by Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifídobacterium lactis in co-cultures with Streptococcus thermophiles. The Response Surface Methodology for mixture model was applied and compositions of optimized mixtures for supplementation had been obtained. It was possible to evaluate the effect of the simultaneous supplementation, identify interaction between the ingredients and get optimized compositions of mixture. Mathematical models with lack of fit not significant were obtained and validation experiments confirmed the quality of the adjustment. For co-culture S. thermophiles and L. acidophilus the models were obtained for kinetic parameters time to reach pH 5,0 and 4,5 (tpH5,0 and tpH4,5). The optimization resulted in mixture composition with 50% of casein hydrolysate of casein, 0% of whey protein concentrate and 50% of skim milk powder, with fit the desirability in 95%.The acidifying profiles of pure cultures and co-culture of Streptococcus thermophiles and Lactobacillus acidophilus in milk prepared with the optimum ingredients amounts calculated by RSM and control milk were studied. Stability and bacterial viability during 28 days of cold storage for bioyogurts produced with optimum and control milk had been studied, using co-culture of S. thermophiles and L. acidophilus. The loss of viability of bacteria, post-acidification and texture properties were examined. The microstructure of the two bioyogurts has been analyzed. All produced bioyogurts could have been considered probiotics, as the populations were higher than the minimum recommended one for promotion of beneficial effect to the health. Bioyogurt from milk supplemented at optimum region resulted in 32% of reduction on time necessary to reach pH 4.5, in comparison with that produced from control milk. The S. thermophiles counting remained stable, while L. acidophilus counts decreased, even so the populations were . superior to 1 billion at 28 days of storage. The firmness, yield stress τ0 , elastic G\' and viscous G\" modulus of optimum milk were superior to control milk during the study, while the structural recovery presented opposite behavior. The analysis of the micrographs of optimum milk and the control showed greater number of pores with small diameter for the former, indicating a denser structure.

As bactérias probióticas crescem lentamente em leite e a suplementação é um dos fatores que melhoram seu crescimento na produção de iogurtes funcionais ou bioiogurtes, além da aplicação em co-cultura com Streptococcus thermophilus. Desta forma, objetivou-se avaliar o efeito simultâneo da suplementação do leite com hidrolisado de caseína, proteína concentrada de soro e leite em pó desnatado na produção de bioiogurtes fermentados por Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus Acidophilus e Bifidobacterium lactis em co-culturas com Streptococcus thermophilus. A metodologia de superfície de resposta com delineamento de mistura foi empregada e diferentes composições de misturas de suplementação otimizadas foram obtidas para as diferentes co-culturas. Foi possível avaliar o efeito da suplementação simultânea do enriquecimento do leite com os três ingredientes estudados, identificar interação ocorrida entre os ingredientes e obter composições de mistura otimizadas. A co-cultura S. thermophilus e L. acidophilus obteve bons modelos preditivos e falta de ajuste não significativo para os parâmetros cinéticos tempo para se atingir pH 5,0 e 4,5 (tpH5,0 e tpH4,5). Ensaios de validação do modelo confirmaram a qualidade do ajuste. A otimização resultou composição de mistura da suplementação do leite com 50% de hidrolisado de caseína, 0% de proteína concentrada de soro e 50% de leite em pó, atende em 95% os critérios de desejabilidade. Os perfis de acidificação de culturas puras e co-culturas de Streptococcus thermophilus com Lactobacillus acidophilus em leite controle e leite suplementado no ponto ótimo foram estudados, assim como o comportamento dos bioiogurtes, usando-se a co-cultura, durante estudo de estabilidade ao armazenamento. Os parâmetros avaliados foram perda de viabilidade das bactérias, pós-acidificação e propriedades de textura. A microestrutura dos bioiogurtes obtidos com leite controle e suplementado no ponto ótimo foi analisada. Em todos os ensaios os bioiogurtes obtidos puderam ser considerados probióticos, pois as populações foram superiores ao mínimo recomendado para promoção de efeitos benéficos à saúde. O bioiogurte suplementado no ponto ótimo resultou em tempo de fermentação 32% menor em relação ao controle fermentado pela co-cultura de S. Thermophilus e L. acidophilus. A contagem de S. thermophilus permaneceu estável e de L. acidophilus decresceu durante o período de estudo de estabilidade ao armazenamento, embora as populações tenham sido superiores ao recomendado para promoção de efeitos benéficos à saúde aos 28 dias de armazenamento. A firmeza, a tensão limite τ0, os módulos de armazenamento G\' e de perda G\" do leite otimizado foram superiores ao leite controle, enquanto a porcentagem de recuperação estrutural apresentou comportamento oposto. A análise das micrografias do leite ótimo e do controle mostrou maior percentual de poros de menor diâmetro para o primeiro, indicando uma estrutura mais densa. / The probiotic bacteria develop slowly in milk and for probiotic yogurt production milk supplementation improves bacteria growth. Beyond that, use of probiotic in combination with Streptococcus thermophiles is common and recommendable. The aim of this research was to evaluate the simultaneous effect of milk supplementation with casein hydrolysate, whey protein concentrate and skim milk powder in the production of bioyogurt. Milk was fermented by Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifídobacterium lactis in co-cultures with Streptococcus thermophiles. The Response Surface Methodology for mixture model was applied and compositions of optimized mixtures for supplementation had been obtained. It was possible to evaluate the effect of the simultaneous supplementation, identify interaction between the ingredients and get optimized compositions of mixture. Mathematical models with lack of fit not significant were obtained and validation experiments confirmed the quality of the adjustment. For co-culture S. thermophiles and L. acidophilus the models were obtained for kinetic parameters time to reach pH 5,0 and 4,5 (tpH5,0 and tpH4,5). The optimization resulted in mixture composition with 50% of casein hydrolysate of casein, 0% of whey protein concentrate and 50% of skim milk powder, with fit the desirability in 95%.The acidifying profiles of pure cultures and co-culture of Streptococcus thermophiles and Lactobacillus acidophilus in milk prepared with the optimum ingredients amounts calculated by RSM and control milk were studied. Stability and bacterial viability during 28 days of cold storage for bioyogurts produced with optimum and control milk had been studied, using co-culture of S. thermophiles and L. acidophilus. The loss of viability of bacteria, post-acidification and texture properties were examined. The microstructure of the two bioyogurts has been analyzed. All produced bioyogurts could have been considered probiotics, as the populations were higher than the minimum recommended one for promotion of beneficial effect to the health. Bioyogurt from milk supplemented at optimum region resulted in 32% of reduction on time necessary to reach pH 4.5, in comparison with that produced from control milk. The S. thermophiles counting remained stable, while L. acidophilus counts decreased, even so the populations were . superior to 1 billion at 28 days of storage. The firmness, yield stress τ0 , elastic G\' and viscous G\" modulus of optimum milk were superior to control milk during the study, while the structural recovery presented opposite behavior. The analysis of the micrographs of optimum milk and the control showed greater number of pores with small diameter for the former, indicating a denser structure.

Este trabalho avaliou os efeitos de diferentes períodos de armazenagem (0, 3 e 6 dias) e temperaturas (4º e 10ºC) do leite de cabra sobre o produto pasteurizado. Foram avaliadas as alterações microbiológicas e físico-químicas do leite caprino cru e a influência nas características microbiológicas, físico-químicas e sensoriais do produto pasteurizado durante o armazenamento por até 6 dias. Utilizou-se a pasteurização lenta (65ºC/30 min.) e as amostras foram mantidas a 10ºC por 0, 3 e 6 dias. Foram realizadas contagens de microrganismos mesófilos, psicrotróficos totais, lipolíticos, proteolíticos, coliformes totais e fecais. As populações de microrganismos tiveram maior desenvolvimento na temperatura de 10ºC do que a 4º C. A população de microrganismos mesófilos e psicrotróficos atingiu 106 UFC/mL em todos os experimentos realizados a 10ºC no terceiro dia de estocagem. A 4ºC, este valor foi ultrapassado no sexto dia. A pasteurização foi eficiente na redução microbiana, sendo que os microrganismos lipolíticos, proteolíticos e psicrotróficos não foram detectados durante a armazenagem do produto. Os microrganismos mesófilos também foram reduzidos. Contudo alterações decorrentes do período de estocagem crua influenciaram as características físico químicas e sensoriais na estocagem após a pasteurização. A acidez do leite cru manteve-se aceitável em todos os experimentos realizados a 4ºC. No leite estocado a 10ºC, a acidez manteve-se aceitável apenas no terceiro dia após a coleta em 2 dos 3 experimentos. Foi observado decréscimo no teor de gordura do leite cru durante o armazenamento em ambas as temperaturas e o aumento gradativo da quantidade de ácidos graxos livres (AGL). Após a pasteurização, os valores de acidez e teor de gordura permaneceram estáveis, enquanto a quantidade de AGL continuou aumentando significativamente. Para a estocagem do leite cru a 10ºC a pasteurização só foi eficiente para manter a qualidade sensorial em níveis aceitáveis quando o leite cru foi pasteurizado no mesmo dia da ordenha e do resfriamento, enquanto na estocagem a 4ºC, o leite cru estocado por 6 dias foi rejeitado apenas no 3º dia após a pasteurização. Na análise sensorial, o leite estocado a 10ºC teve como principal causa de rejeição o odor e sabor azedos, enquanto a 4ºC, a rejeição deu-se principalmente pelo sabor cáprico. Concluiu-se que o leite de cabra cru poderia ser mantido por até 3 dias a 4ºC, para o produto pasteurizado ter uma vida útil de 6 dias e que a temperatura 10ºC não deve ser utilizada como instrumento na conservação do leite cru. / Different periods of storage (0, 3 and 6 days) and temperatures (4 and 10ºC) effects of raw goat milk on pasteurized product were evaluated. Microbiological and physical-chemical alterations in raw and pasteurized goat milk stored for up six days were evaluated. Pasteurization (65ºC/30 minutes) was used and samples were kept at 10ºC for 0, 3 and 6 days. Counting of mesophiles, total, lipolytic and proteolytic psichotrophic bacteria, total and fecal coliforms were determined. The microorganisms populations had higher growth at 10ºC than 4ºC and samples didn´t resist for 6 days in this condition. Pasteurization was efficient to reduce the number of microorganisms. Lipolytic, proteolytic and total psicrotrophic bacteria weren´t detected after pasteurization. Mesophiles and psichrotophic microrganisms populations reached 106 cfu/mL in all experiments at 10ºC at third day of storage. At 4ºC, this population was exceeded at sixth day. Pasteurization was efficient to reduce the number of microorganisms. Lipolytic, proteolytic and total psicrotrophic bacteria were not detected during pasteurized product storage. Mesophiles microorganisms also reduced. Alterations in raw milk during storage influenced physicalchemical characteristics after pasteurization. Acidity in raw milk remained acceptable in all of experiments at 4ºC. In stored raw milk at 10ºC, acidity remained acceptable only up to third day after milking in 2 of 3 experiments. It was observed decrease in raw milk fat content during storage in both temperatures and gradual increase of free fatty acids (FFA). After heat treatment, the values of acidity and fat content remained stable, while FFA continued increasing significantly. For raw milk storage at 10ºC pasteurization was efficient to keep sensorial quality in acceptable levels when raw milk was pasteurized in the same day of milking and cooling, while in storage at 4ºC, raw milk stored per 6 days was rejected only in third day after pasteurization. In sensorial analysis, stored milk at 10ºC had as main cause of rejection the acid odor and flavor, while at 4ºC, the rejection was given mainly for the capric flavor. It was concluded that raw goat milk can be kept for up to 3 days at 4ºC before the heat treatment for pasteurized product have six days of shelf-life and that the temperature 10ºC does not have to be used as an instrument of raw milk conservation.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Food Technology)-Dept. of Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2007 xiii, 100 leaves / There are many ways for milk and dairy products to develop flavour defects. Sensory evaluation, has been the traditional approach to characterize off flavours. The need for odour sensing devices becomes greater when volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds are present in the product in parts per billion or even in the parts per trillion concentration range that cause off flavours. Today, sophisticated, sensitive instrumental tests such as electronic nose technology coupled with gas chromatography are capable of detecting, identifying and quantifying the specific chemical agents responsible for off flavours. This study focused on the use of the electronic nose as a novel technology for the detection and monitoring of milk quality by testing the effects of heat treatment at 63˚C and shelf life. Microbiological testing, sensory evaluation and gas chromatographic analysis were carried out together with aroma profiling using the electronic nose to determine milk quality.

CAPES; CNPq / Tendo em vista a importância social e econômica que o leite possui, o objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar a incidência e quantificar resíduos de antimicrobianos neste alimento. As amostras foram coletadas em laticínios do sudoeste do estado do Paraná e desta maneira puderam-se abranger todos os dez municípios pertencentes à microrregião de Pato Branco. Os trabalhos se concentraram no desenvolvimento de modelos apropriados para a identificação e quantificação dos analitos: tetraciclina, sulfametazina, sulfadimetoxina, cloranfenicol e ampicilina, todos antimicrobianos com interesse sanitário. Para a fase de calibração e validação dos modelos foi utilizada a Espectroscopia no Infravermelho com Transformada de Fourier associada a método quimiométrico fundamentado em regressão por Mínimos Quadrados Parciais (PLS - Partial Least Squares). Para o preparo de uma solução estoque de trabalho, foram utilizados os cinco analitos de interesse em doses crescentes, a saber, tetraciclina 0 a 0,60 ppm, sulfametazina 0 a 0,12 ppm, sulfadimetoxina 0 a 2,40 ppm, cloranfenicol 0 a 1,20 ppm e ampicilina 0 a 1,80 ppm, para a realização das análises de multirresíduos. O desempenho dos modelos construídos foi avaliado através das figuras de mérito: erros quadráticos médios de calibração e de validação cruzada, coeficientes de determinação e relação de desempenho de desvio. Para efeitos de aplicabilidade no âmbito deste trabalho, considerou-se que os modelos gerados para Tetraciclina, Sulfadimetoxina e Cloranfenicol foram considerados viáveis, com maior poder de predição e eficiência, logo foram empregados para a avaliação da qualidade do leite cru da microrregião de Pato Branco. Dentre as amostras analisadas por NIR, 70 % estavam em conformidade com a legislação sanitária, sendo que 5 % destas amostras apresentaram concentrações abaixo do Limite Máximo de Resíduos permitido, sendo igualmente satisfatória. No entanto 30 % do conjunto amostral apresentou resultado insatisfatório quando avaliada a contaminação com resíduos de antimicrobianos, sendo esta não conformidade relacionada à presença de antimicrobiano de uso proibido ou com concentrações acima dos limites permitidos. Com o desenvolvimento deste trabalho pode-se dizer que a análises laboratoriais na área de alimentos, utilizando a espectroscopia no infravermelho com calibração multivariada apresenta bons resultados, com rapidez nas análises, custos reduzidos e com mínima geração de resíduos laboratoriais. Sendo assim, o método alternativo proposto vai ao encontro dos anseios de qualidade e eficiência almejados pelos setores industriais e pela sociedade de um modo geral. / Considering the social and economic importance that the milk has, the objective of this study was to evaluate the incidence and quantifying antimicrobial residues in the food. The samples were collected in dairy industry of southwestern Paraná state and thus they were able to cover all ten municipalities in the region of Pato Branco. The work focused on the development of appropriate models for the identification and quantification of analytes: tetracycline, sulfamethazine, sulfadimethoxine, chloramphenicol and ampicillin, all antimicrobials with health interest. For the calibration procedure and validation of the models was used the Infrared Spectroscopy Fourier Transform associated with chemometric method based on Partial Least Squares regression (PLS - Partial Least Squares). To prepare a work solution antimicrobials, the five analytes of interest were used in increasing doses, namely tetracycline from 0 to 0.60 ppm, sulfamethazine 0 to 0.12 ppm, sulfadimethoxine 0 to 2.40 ppm chloramphenicol 0 1.20 ppm and ampicillin 0 to 1.80 ppm to perform the work with the interest in multiresidues analysis. The performance of the models constructed was evaluated through the figures of merit: mean square error of calibration and cross-validation, correlation coefficients and offset performance ratio. For the purposes of applicability in this work, it is considered that the models generated for Tetracycline, Sulfadimethoxine and Chloramphenicol were considered viable, with the greatest predictive power and efficiency, then were employed to evaluate the quality of raw milk from the region of Pato Branco . Among the analyzed samples by NIR, 70% were in conformity with sanitary legislation, and 5% of these samples had concentrations below the Maximum Residue permitted, and is also satisfactory. However 30% of the sample set showed unsatisfactory results when evaluating the contamination with antimicrobials residues, which is non conformity related to the presence of antimicrobial unauthorized use or concentrations above the permitted limits. With the development of this work can be said that laboratory tests in the food area, using infrared spectroscopy with multivariate calibration was also good, fast in analysis, reduced costs and with minimum generation of laboratory waste. Thus, the alternative method proposed meets the quality concerns and desired efficiency by industrial sectors and society in general.

Este trabalho avaliou os efeitos de diferentes períodos de armazenagem (0, 3 e 6 dias) e temperaturas (4º e 10ºC) do leite de cabra sobre o produto pasteurizado. Foram avaliadas as alterações microbiológicas e físico-químicas do leite caprino cru e a influência nas características microbiológicas, físico-químicas e sensoriais do produto pasteurizado durante o armazenamento por até 6 dias. Utilizou-se a pasteurização lenta (65ºC/30 min.) e as amostras foram mantidas a 10ºC por 0, 3 e 6 dias. Foram realizadas contagens de microrganismos mesófilos, psicrotróficos totais, lipolíticos, proteolíticos, coliformes totais e fecais. As populações de microrganismos tiveram maior desenvolvimento na temperatura de 10ºC do que a 4º C. A população de microrganismos mesófilos e psicrotróficos atingiu 106 UFC/mL em todos os experimentos realizados a 10ºC no terceiro dia de estocagem. A 4ºC, este valor foi ultrapassado no sexto dia. A pasteurização foi eficiente na redução microbiana, sendo que os microrganismos lipolíticos, proteolíticos e psicrotróficos não foram detectados durante a armazenagem do produto. Os microrganismos mesófilos também foram reduzidos. Contudo alterações decorrentes do período de estocagem crua influenciaram as características físico químicas e sensoriais na estocagem após a pasteurização. A acidez do leite cru manteve-se aceitável em todos os experimentos realizados a 4ºC. No leite estocado a 10ºC, a acidez manteve-se aceitável apenas no terceiro dia após a coleta em 2 dos 3 experimentos. Foi observado decréscimo no teor de gordura do leite cru durante o armazenamento em ambas as temperaturas e o aumento gradativo da quantidade de ácidos graxos livres (AGL). Após a pasteurização, os valores de acidez e teor de gordura permaneceram estáveis, enquanto a quantidade de AGL continuou aumentando significativamente. Para a estocagem do leite cru a 10ºC a pasteurização só foi eficiente para manter a qualidade sensorial em níveis aceitáveis quando o leite cru foi pasteurizado no mesmo dia da ordenha e do resfriamento, enquanto na estocagem a 4ºC, o leite cru estocado por 6 dias foi rejeitado apenas no 3º dia após a pasteurização. Na análise sensorial, o leite estocado a 10ºC teve como principal causa de rejeição o odor e sabor azedos, enquanto a 4ºC, a rejeição deu-se principalmente pelo sabor cáprico. Concluiu-se que o leite de cabra cru poderia ser mantido por até 3 dias a 4ºC, para o produto pasteurizado ter uma vida útil de 6 dias e que a temperatura 10ºC não deve ser utilizada como instrumento na conservação do leite cru. / Different periods of storage (0, 3 and 6 days) and temperatures (4 and 10ºC) effects of raw goat milk on pasteurized product were evaluated. Microbiological and physical-chemical alterations in raw and pasteurized goat milk stored for up six days were evaluated. Pasteurization (65ºC/30 minutes) was used and samples were kept at 10ºC for 0, 3 and 6 days. Counting of mesophiles, total, lipolytic and proteolytic psichotrophic bacteria, total and fecal coliforms were determined. The microorganisms populations had higher growth at 10ºC than 4ºC and samples didn´t resist for 6 days in this condition. Pasteurization was efficient to reduce the number of microorganisms. Lipolytic, proteolytic and total psicrotrophic bacteria weren´t detected after pasteurization. Mesophiles and psichrotophic microrganisms populations reached 106 cfu/mL in all experiments at 10ºC at third day of storage. At 4ºC, this population was exceeded at sixth day. Pasteurization was efficient to reduce the number of microorganisms. Lipolytic, proteolytic and total psicrotrophic bacteria were not detected during pasteurized product storage. Mesophiles microorganisms also reduced. Alterations in raw milk during storage influenced physicalchemical characteristics after pasteurization. Acidity in raw milk remained acceptable in all of experiments at 4ºC. In stored raw milk at 10ºC, acidity remained acceptable only up to third day after milking in 2 of 3 experiments. It was observed decrease in raw milk fat content during storage in both temperatures and gradual increase of free fatty acids (FFA). After heat treatment, the values of acidity and fat content remained stable, while FFA continued increasing significantly. For raw milk storage at 10ºC pasteurization was efficient to keep sensorial quality in acceptable levels when raw milk was pasteurized in the same day of milking and cooling, while in storage at 4ºC, raw milk stored per 6 days was rejected only in third day after pasteurization. In sensorial analysis, stored milk at 10ºC had as main cause of rejection the acid odor and flavor, while at 4ºC, the rejection was given mainly for the capric flavor. It was concluded that raw goat milk can be kept for up to 3 days at 4ºC before the heat treatment for pasteurized product have six days of shelf-life and that the temperature 10ºC does not have to be used as an instrument of raw milk conservation.

M. Tech. (Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations predict that milk production and the dairy sector will remain one of the fastest-growing agricultural subsectors over the coming decade. The global milk production is projected to expand over the 2011-2020 period at an annual rate of 2%. In South Africa alone, approximately 14 – 15 million litres of milk are wasted annually due to microbial spoilage. Therefore, the identification of the spoilage microorganisms in the milk products is necessary. This will contribute towards the design of appropriate measures to prevent wastage due to spoilage and in turn contribute towards sustainability of the sector. Accordingly, one hundred samples of spoiled full cream UHT milk were collected from two plants of each of the two largest milk processors. These samples were examined visually, and the pH was measured. A presumptive identification up to genus level was conducted by examining morphological features and conducting Gram-stain, catalase and oxidase tests. Species-specific identification was done by using the Analytical Profile Index and Biolog system. Molecular profiling was done by sequencing the rDNA genes. The main spoilage organisms identified in the samples were Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Bacillus, Enterococcus and Lactobacillus. All organisms belonging to the five genera were psychrotrophs, which are commonly found in biofilms in UHT milk processing equipment. Therefore, according to the study, the spoilage bacteria apparently entered into the milk due to inadequate cleaning-in-place (CIP) processes. More importantly, further studies should be conducted in order to identify the spoilage microbes and how CIP processes can be improved.

Bifidobacterium spp. são microrganismos probióticos que podem ser incorporados em produtos alimentícios. Entretanto, para que seus efeitos benéficos à saúde humana ocorram, é necessário que o número de células viáveis na hora do consumo seja, no mínimo, 106UFC/g. As bifidobactérias são sensíveis à elevada acidez e, por isso, torna-se necessária a busca por métodos que possam proteger a integridade da célula, sendo um deles a microencapsulação. Em uma primeira etapa do trabalho, Bifidobacterium lactis foi encapsulado em micropartículas de alginato e alginato modificado (alginatoquitosana, alginato-quitosana-sureteric e alginato-quitosana-acryl-eze) e sua sobrevivência e liberação das micropartículas em fluidos simulados do trato gastrintestinal foram mensuradas utilizando-se soluções tampão com pH 1,5, 5,6 e 7,5, na presença e na ausência de pepsina (3g/L), pancreatina (1g/L) e bile (10g/L). A liberação de células das micropartículas teve uma relação direta com o pH do tampão. A microencapsulação aumentou a taxa de sobrevivência de B. lactis, em comparação com células não encapsuladas, em soluções tampão com pH 1,5 sem a presença de enzimas. Em suco gástrico simulado com enzimas digestivas, por outro lado, foi observado que a pepsina proporcionou um efeito protetor sobre as células de B. lactis, e nesse caso, as taxas de sobrevivência do microrganismo estavam diretamente relacionadas com o grau de injúria das células. Em uma segunda etapa do trabalho, leites fermentados com Streptococcus salivarius ssp. thermophilus e Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus foram enriquecidos com culturas de Bifidobacterium lactis submetidas a quatro tratamentos diferentes: desidratação em temperatura ambiente, liofilização/congelamento, encapsulação em alginatoquitosana e encapsulação em alginato-quitosana-acryl-eze. A população sobrevivente de B. lactis foi determinada semanalmente no leite fermentado e também após tratamento simulando condições do trato gastrintestinal. Os resultados indicaram que na ausência de pepsina, as populações de B. lactis foram reduzidas drasticamente após o contato com tampão pH 1,5, não sendo possível a detecção de células viáveis livres ou encapsuladas após 120 minutos de teste. A presença de pepsina influenciou positivamente a recuperação de células viáveis de B. lactis em todas as condições testadas, mas as culturas na forma desidratada apresentaram melhores resultados que as culturas microencapsuladas ou liofilizadas. No caso do leite fermentado contendo as células desidratadas, a população de B. lactis, após o tratamento em suco gástrico com enzimas, foi superior à detectada no produto antes desse tratamento. Conclui-se que a microencapsulação não foi eficiente para proteger B. lactis em leite fermentado contra injúrias causadas pelo trato gastrintestinal simulado. / Bifidobacterium spp. are microorganisms that can be added to foods. However, the benefits for the human health occur when the numbers of viable cells in the moment of the consumption is at least 106CFU/g. Bifidobacteria are acid sensitive, and methods to protect cell integrity, such as microencapsulation, are needed. In the first part of the present study, Bifidobacterium lactis was encapsulated in microparticles of alginate and modified alginate (alginate-chitosan, alginate-chitosan-sureteric and alginate-chitosan-acryl-eze) and the survival and release from microparticles in simulated gastrointestinal conditions were measured, using buffers (pH 1.5, 5.6 and 7.5), in the absence and presence of pepsin (3g/L), pancreatin (1g/L) and bile. The release from microparticles presented a direct relationship with pH. When the pH was 1.5 and no enzyme was present, encapsulation improved the survival of B. lactis, when compared to free cells. However, pepsin had a protective effect on B. lactis, and the survival rate was directly related to the cells injury degree. In the second part of the study, fermented milk samples containing Streptococcus salivarius ssp. thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. Bulgaricus were supplemented with B. lactis submitted to four different treatments: dehydration at room temperature, freeze drying, encapsulation in alginate-chitosan and encapsulation in alginate-chitosaacryl-eze. The number of viable B. lactis cells in the fermented milk was determined weekly and also after treatment with simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Results indicated that in the absence of pepsin, the number of viable cells decreased significantly after contact with buffers (pH 1.5), and no viable cell was detected after 120 minutes. Pepsin improved the recovery of viable cells in the assayed gastric conditions, being the dehydrated cultures more resistant than other cultures. In fermented milk containing the dehydrated cells, the number of viable cells increased after treatment with simulated gastrointestinal fluids. Microencapsulation was not an effective procedure to protect B. lactis in fermented milk against injury caused by the simulated gastrointestinal tract.