Abstract Millions of tons of mine tailings are generated worldwide annually. Since many valuable metals such as Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, Au and Ni are usually incorporated into sulphidic minerals, a large proportion of the tailings generated contain high amounts of sulphates and heavy metals. Some of these tailings are used as paste backfill material at mining sites, but large amounts are still being deposited into the tailings dams under water coverage. Sulphidic minerals are stable underground but after mining of the ore and several processing steps these minerals can be oxidized when they come into contact with water and air. This oxidation generates acid and thus reduces the pH of the surrounding environment. Furthermore, the heavy metals present in the mine tailings can be leached into the environment. This phenomenon, called Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), is one of the most critical environmental issues related to the management of sulphidic-rich tailings. Since AMD generation can still occur hundreds of years after closure of the mine, the mine tailings need stable, sustainable and economically viable management methods in order to prevent AMD production in the long term. The aim of this PhD thesis was to study various solidification/stabilization (S/S) methods for the immobilization of sulphidic mine tailings. The main focus was to develop a suitable chemical environment for achieving effective heavy metal (mainly arsenic) and sulphate immobilization while simultaneously ensuring good mechanical properties. Three treatment methods were tested: alkali activation, stabilization using hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) and blast furnace slag (GBFS), and calcium sulphoaluminate-belite (CSAB) cement stabilization. The mine tailings used in this study contained large amounts of sulphates and heavy metals such as Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn, Zn, V and As. The leaching of arsenic and sulphates from powdered tailings exceeded the legal limits for regular and inert waste. All treatment methods were found to generate a hardened matrix that was suitable for use as a backfilling or construction material, but the calcium-based binding system was the most suitable for effective immobilization of all the heavy metals (including arsenic) and the sulphates. Precipitation in the form of calcium sulphates/calcium arsenate and the formation of ettringite are the main stabilization methods employed in calcium-based stabilization/solidification (S/S) systems. Some evidence of physical encapsulation occurring simultaneously with chemical stabilization was noted. These results can be exploited further to develop more sustainable mine tailing management systems for use in the future. The tailings could be stored in a dry landfill area instead of in tailing dams, and in this way a long-term decrease in AMD generation could be achieved, together with a high potential for recycling. / Tiivistelmä Monet arvometallit kuten kulta, kupari ja nikkeli ovat sitoutuneena sulfidipitoisiin mineraaleihin. Louhittaessa ja rikastettaessa näitä sulfidimineraaleja syntyy miljoonia tonneja sulfidipitoisia rikastushiekkoja vuosittain. Rikastushiekat voivat sisältää myös runsaasti erilaisia raskasmetalleja. Osa rikastushiekoista hyödynnetään kaivostäytössä, mutta suurin osa rikastushiekoista läjitetään edelleen ympäristöön rikastushiekka-altaisiin veden alle. Kun sulfidipitoinen malmi kaivetaan ja käsitellään, sulfidiset mineraalit hapettuvat ollessaan kosketuksissa veden ja hapen kanssa. Hapettuessaan ne muodostavat rikkihappoa, laskien ympäristön pH:ta jolloin useimmat raskasmetallit liukenevat ympäristöön. Muodostuvia happamia kaivosvesiä voi syntyä vielä pitkään kaivoksen sulkemisen jälkeen ja ovat näin ollen yksi suurimmista kaivosteollisuuteen liittyvistä ympäristöongelmista. Lisäksi suuret rikastushiekka-altaat voivat aiheuttaa vaaraa myös ihmisille, mikäli altaan rakenteet pettävät. Rikastushiekkojen kestäviä ja ympäristöystävällisiä varastointimenetelmiä täytyy kehittää, jotta näitä ongelmia voidaan tulevaisuudessa ehkäistä. Tässä työssä tutkittiin menetelmiä, joilla kultakaivoksella syntyvät sulfidipitoiset vaaralliseksi jätteeksi luokitellut rikastushiekat saataisiin stabiloitua tehokkaasti. Työssä keskityttiin kolmeen erilaiseen menetelmään: alkali-aktivointiin, stabilointiin kalsiumhydroksidin ja masuunikuonan avulla ja stabilointiin CSAB sementin avulla. Valmistettujen materiaalien mekaanisia ja kemiallisia ominaisuuksia arvioitiin. Tavoitteena oli ymmärtää, miten eri menetelmät soveltuvat raskasmetallien (erityisesti arseenin) ja sulfaattien sitoutumiseen ja mikä on eri komponenttien rooli reaktioissa. Alkali-aktivoimalla rikastushiekkaa sopivan sidosaineen kanssa saavutettiin hyvät mekaaniset ominaisuudet ja useimmat haitta-aineet sitoutuivat materiaaliin. Ongelmia aiheuttivat edelleen sulfaatit ja arseeni. Kalsiumpohjaiset menetelmät sitoivat raskasmetallit (myös arseenin) ja sulfaatit tehokkaimmin. Sulfaatit ja arseeni saostuivat muodostaen niukkaliukoisia komponentteja kalsiumin kanssa. Samanaikaisesti rakenteeseen muodostui ettringiittiä, jolla on tutkitusti hyvä kyky sitoa erilaisia raskasmetalleja rakenteeseensa. Raskasmetallit myös kapseloituivat rakenteen sisään. Työn tuloksia voidaan hyödyntää, kehitettäessä rikastushiekkojen turvallista varastointia. Kun materiaalille saavutetaan riittävän hyvä lujuus ja kemiallinen stabiilius, rikastushiekat voitaisiin läjittää tulevaisuudessa kuivalle maalle altaan sijaan. Näin vältyttäisiin rikastushiekka-altaiden rakentamiselta ja voitaisiin vähentää happamien kaivosvesien muodostumista pitkällä ajanjaksolla. Saavutettujen tulosten perusteella rikastushiekkoja voidaan mahdollisesti tulevaisuudessa hyödyntää myös erilaisissa betonin tapaisissa rakennusmateriaaleissa.

The use of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) as (i) covers for arsenic-rich gold mine tailings and landfills, (ii) subsurface barrier for migration of hydrocarbons in the Arctic, and (iii) basal liner for sewage treatment lagoons were examined. After 4 years in field and laboratory experiments, it was found that best cover configuration above gold mine tailings might include a layer of GCL product with polymer-enhanced bentonite and a geofilm-coated carrier geotextile serving above the tailings under ≥ 0.7 m overburden. However, acceptable performance could be achieved with using a standard GCL with untreated bentonite provided that there is a minimum of 0.7 m of cover soil above the GCL. When GCL samples were exhumed from experimental landfill test cover with complete replacement of sodium in the bentonite with divalent cations in the adjacent soil, it was observed that the (i) hydraulic head across the GCLs, (ii) size of the needle-punched bundles, and (iii) structure of the bentonite can all significantly affect the value of the inferred in-situ hydraulic conductivity measured at the laboratory. The higher the hydraulic head and the larger the size of the needle-punched bundles, the higher the likelihood of internal erosion/structural change of bentonite at bundles that will cause a preferential flow for liquids to occur. A key practical implication was that GCLs can perform effectively as a single hydraulic barrier in covers provided that the water head above the GCL kept low. The hydraulic performance of a GCL in the Arctic was most affected by the location within the soil profile relative to the typical groundwater level with the highest increase in the hydraulic conductivity (by 1-4 orders of magnitude) for GCL below the water table. However, because the head required for jet fuel to pass through the GCL was higher than that present under field conditions, there was no evidence of jet fuel leakage through the barrier system. The leakage through GCLs below concrete lined sewage treatment lagoons was within acceptable limits, in large part, due to the low interface transmissivity between GCLs and the overlying poured concrete. / Thesis (Ph.D, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2014-02-28 08:53:29.171

Résumé : Ce projet de recherche s’inscrit dans le cadre d’une requête de l’entreprise partenaire, Golder Associés Ltée. Cette dernière s’interrogeait sur la consolidation d’un résidu minier épaissi, une approche de plus en plus utilisée dans le domaine de la gestion des aires de déposition des résidus miniers. Ce type de matériau est épaissi jusqu’à un point où une fois déposé, il ne connaît pas ou peu de ségrégation, rejette moins d’eau et possède généralement un angle de repos plus grand que les résidus conventionnels. L’intérêt de cette approche dans le cadre de cette étude consiste en la réduction des empreintes des aires de déposition par la combinaison des résidus épaissis et des rehaussements par l’amont. La consolidation de ce type de résidus a été peu étudiée depuis leur développement. En rassemblant les observations rapportées dans les écrits scientifiques, il est possible de ressortir que le mécanisme physique générant la dissipation des pressions interstitielles en excès et le tassement au moment de la déposition est essentiellement la consolidation sous le poids propre. Un essai en colonne de tassement instrumentée de transmetteurs de pression a permis l’étude de la consolidation sous le poids propre en termes de dissipation des pressions d’eau avec une grande précision. Un essai en consolidomètre a permis de définir la compressibilité du matériau durant cette étape de consolidation sous le poids propre avec une précision acceptable. Les résultats expérimentaux ont été reproduits à l’aide du modèle CS2 suite à quelques ajustements des relations constitutives. CS2 considère la consolidation sous le poids propre et les grandes déformations d’une déposition instantanée. Le rapprochement entre le modèle CS2 et les résultats expérimentaux est sans équivoque et permet de prendre connaissance de certains aspects de la consolidation sous le poids propre qui étaient peu détaillés jusqu'à maintenant dans les écrits scientifiques. L’importance de la consolidation sous le poids propre et son intégration dans le plan de déposition proposé par l’entreprise partenaire a été évaluée à l’aide du logiciel SIGMA/W. Les capacités de ce logiciel ont tout d’abord été étudiées en 1D. Ces vérifications visaient la considération de la consolidation sous le poids propre tout en examinant la formulation de SIGMA/W pour un remplissage progressif. Ces simulations 1D ont pu être comparées aux résultats du modèle CS4, un modèle calqué sur CS2 qui permet un remplissage progressif. Finalement, une campagne de simulation à grande échelle en 2D visant la simulation d’une aire de déposition de résidus épaissis a permis d’examiner les éléments importants dans la considération de ce mécanisme à l’aide du logiciel commercial SIGMA/W. Il en ressort que le logiciel SIGMA/W n’est pas le logiciel idéal pour simuler la déposition progressive de résidus épaissis en considérant la consolidation sous le poids propre et ce pour maintes raisons. Les résultats de cette étude viennent situer l’importance de la consolidation sous le poids propre dans les résidus épaissis et fournissent une base solide pour la compréhension et la modélisation numérique de ce mécanisme en 1D ou en 2D. // Abstract : This research project was done through an academic partnership between the Université de Sherbrooke and Golder Associés Ltée., a mining consultant from Montréal. The latter had interrogations at regarding consolidation mechanisms controlling thickened tailings deposition, a relatively new approach in tailings management. This type of material are thickened to a point from which they don’t show any segregation, they expulse less water and can be stacked with a greater beach angle than conventional tailings. The combination of this method with the upstream raising method results in the possible reduction of the footprint of the tailings disposal facility. Thickened tailings have not been studied extensively. However, by gathering available information from the existing technical literature, it is apparent that the sole mechanism creating both a dissipation of excess pore water pressure and a settlement following deposition is self-weight consolidation. A settling column monitored with pressure transmitters was used to define accurately the self-weight consolidation process in terms of dissipation of excess pore water pressure. A consolidometer setup was used to define the compressibility of this material during the self-weight consolidation. Experimental results were reproduced with the numerical model CS2 which considers the self-weight consolidation and large strains. Following a few adjustments of the constitutive relationships, the numerical reproduction is clear; it represents closely the experimental results. This made it possible to document certain elements that were not well defined in the technical literature about the self-weight consolidation. The use of the finite element model SIGMA/W and its capability to consider self-weight consolidation within a tailings deposition scheme were evaluated. Firstly, the model capabilities were verified through 1D simulations that helped to document the method to adopt to model the self-weight consolidation. The formulation of SIGMA/W related to the sequential tailings placement was also studied during this phase. A comparison with the model CS4 was also performed. Secondly, the tailings disposal facility was modeled at large scale by including the sequential tailings placement and the consideration of the self-weight consolidation for each deposition. This process allowed evaluating the capabilities of SIGMA/W in large scale analysis. It appears that this numerical tool presents some numerical weaknesses especially with regards to the sequential tailings placement. Moreover, the results of this study place the self-weight consolidation of hard rock thickened mine tailings as an important mechanism that needs to be considered in a deposition scheme as it controls the short term displacements of the impoundment. Finally, they document the self-weight consolidation mechanism and provide reliable information for modelling this process in one or two-dimensional numerical analysis.

Department of Ecology and Resource Management / MENVSC

MENVSC / Department of Ecology and Resource Management / Mine tailings (MT) have been a global problem due to the environmental impacts the waste generates such as air, soil and water pollution. The detrimental impacts include a global problem such as acid mine drainage (AMD) which has been difficult to cleanup. Several studies have been conducted to find alternative measures in reducing or mitigating impacts such as AMD and air pollution. Several studies have revealed how alumino-silicate mineral waste can be used as raw material to produce construction materials. This study aimed at evaluating the potential of synthesizing a geopolymer material from Musina copper mine tailings. Tailings were characterized for their physicochemical and mineralogical compositions using standard laboratory techniques in order to evaluate suitability in geopolymerization. First section of the results presented physicochemical and mineralogical characterization of the Musina copper tailings together with the bioavailability of the chemical species. It was observed that the tailings are mainly composed of SiO2 and Al2O3 as the major oxides indicating that they are aluminosilicate material. Mineralogical analysis revealed dominance of quartz, epidote and chlorite as the major minerals. The bioavailability assessment showed that largely Cu and Ca are bioavailable and highly soluble in an aqueous solution while Al, Mg, Ni, Co, Cr and Fe have a high proportion in non-labile phase. Second section presented the preliminary results wherein the potential application of Musina copper tailings in geopolymerization was evaluated. The results showed that Musina copper tailings can be used to synthesize a geopolymer material. However, it was recommended that several parameters influencing geopolymerization need to be evaluated. The third section presented the evaluation of optimum parameters that influence the geopolymerization process, which include type of alkali activators, alkali activator concentration, curing temperature, liquid-solid (L/S) ratio and curing regime. It was observed that a mixture of NaOH:Na2SiO3.5H20 at a ratio of 70:30 yields a better geopolymer material. The concentration of 10 M NaOH:Na2SiO3.5H20 at a ratio of 70:30 was observed to be the best that yielded the UCS that is acceptable according to SANS1215 standards. When evaluating curing regime, it was found that the material cured using greenhouse has lower UCS as compared to the material cured using oven. The v effect of temperature showed that the UCS decreases with increasing curing temperature. An admixture of river sand and cement was introduced which resulted in a high UCS of 21.16 MPa when using an admixture of cement. The mineralogical composition of the geopolymer bricks showed formation of secondary minerals such as phlogopite, fluorapatite, diopside and actinolite. Batch leaching conducted on the geopolymer bricks detected high leaching of Na from the bricks. Based on the findings of the study of the raw MT potential to produce geopolymer bricks, it was concluded that the material can be used to produce bricks that are within the SANS 1215 requirements. The study further recommended that the study a focus on using cylindrical moulds, other alkali activators and a mechanical mixer. It was also recommended that the greenhouse be restructured to contain heat within the greenhouse during the evening so as to allow constant temperature within / NRF