A regulamentação das hipóteses de erro no Direito Obrigacional foi objeto de profunda alteração em razão da nova redação atribuída à matéria pelo novo Código Civil e em razão do novo cenário desenhado pelo princípio da manutenção do contrato. A presente dissertação trata das diferenças entre a regulamentação do erro em face do Código anterior (1916 – “CC/16”, artigos 86 a 113) e do novo Código (2002 – “CC/02”, artigos 138 a 166). Além disso, a dissertação trata sobre as conseqüências advindas do desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro, inclusive sobre eventual indenização. As questões propostas e que subjazem esta dissertação são: em quais situações a parte pode requerer o desfazimento por erro? A existência de erro, somente, é suficiente para que se declare inválido o contrato? E quais são as conseqüências da invalidação do negócio jurídico? Há algum dever indenizatório? As respostas a essas questões serão umas, se analisadas a partir das regras do Código Civil de 1916, e outras, se respondidas com base nas regras do Código Civil de 2002. A dissertação analisa o fato de, em regra, a doutrina apontar como modificação do novo Código Civil a introdução do princípio da proteção da confiança daquele que não agiu em erro. Na verdade, no entanto, essa proteção já era implementada na vigência do Código Civil anterior (CC/16), por meio do dever de indenizar. Portanto, a proteção da outra parte não é novidade introduzida pelo novo Código Civil (CC/02). A tese exposta nesta dissertação aponta para o fato de que, além da proteção da outra parte, a lei protege o contrato em si, como uma forma de proteger o comércio, ou seja, todos os demais contratos que dependem dele, direta ou indiretamente. E essa proteção é colocada em prática ao se dificultar o desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro. Nesse sentido, o novo Código Civil inovou ao acrescentar um outro requisito para o desfazimento do negócio por erro: a sua recognoscibilidade. / The regulation of the hypotheses of mistake in Contract Law has suffered deep modifications due to the new wording of the new Civil Code and the new scenario drafted by the principle of maintenance of the contract. The presented thesis covers the differences between the old regulation supported by the old Civil Code (1916 – “CC/16”, articles 86 to 113) and the new one (2002 – “CC/02”, articles 138 to 166). Besides that, it deals with the consequences of the extinguishment of the contract due to mistake, including the possibility of indemnification of the other party. The questions posed, which are beneath this thesis, are: in which situations a party may avoid a contract for mistake? The existence of the mistake, solely, is enough to make the contract unenforceable? And what are the consequences? Is there any duty of indemnification? The answers will be different according to the rules of the Civil Code of 1916 and the 2002 one. In general, writers have pointed out as the modification introduced by the new Civil Code the protection of the other party that has not acted in mistake. Actually, this protection has been in evidence since the old Civil Code (CC/16), what was put into practice throughout the duty of indemnification. Thus, the protection of the other party is not the change introduced by the new Civil Code (CC/02). The point is that the new law, besides protecting the other party, protects also the contract itself, as a means of protection of the market, or, in other words, all other contractual relations that depend on it, direct or indirectly. And this protection is put into practice by making more difficult to terminate the contract for mistake. In this sense, the new Civil Code added one more requisite: the recognosibility of the mistake.

A regulamentação das hipóteses de erro no Direito Obrigacional foi objeto de profunda alteração em razão da nova redação atribuída à matéria pelo novo Código Civil e em razão do novo cenário desenhado pelo princípio da manutenção do contrato. A presente dissertação trata das diferenças entre a regulamentação do erro em face do Código anterior (1916 – “CC/16”, artigos 86 a 113) e do novo Código (2002 – “CC/02”, artigos 138 a 166). Além disso, a dissertação trata sobre as conseqüências advindas do desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro, inclusive sobre eventual indenização. As questões propostas e que subjazem esta dissertação são: em quais situações a parte pode requerer o desfazimento por erro? A existência de erro, somente, é suficiente para que se declare inválido o contrato? E quais são as conseqüências da invalidação do negócio jurídico? Há algum dever indenizatório? As respostas a essas questões serão umas, se analisadas a partir das regras do Código Civil de 1916, e outras, se respondidas com base nas regras do Código Civil de 2002. A dissertação analisa o fato de, em regra, a doutrina apontar como modificação do novo Código Civil a introdução do princípio da proteção da confiança daquele que não agiu em erro. Na verdade, no entanto, essa proteção já era implementada na vigência do Código Civil anterior (CC/16), por meio do dever de indenizar. Portanto, a proteção da outra parte não é novidade introduzida pelo novo Código Civil (CC/02). A tese exposta nesta dissertação aponta para o fato de que, além da proteção da outra parte, a lei protege o contrato em si, como uma forma de proteger o comércio, ou seja, todos os demais contratos que dependem dele, direta ou indiretamente. E essa proteção é colocada em prática ao se dificultar o desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro. Nesse sentido, o novo Código Civil inovou ao acrescentar um outro requisito para o desfazimento do negócio por erro: a sua recognoscibilidade. / The regulation of the hypotheses of mistake in Contract Law has suffered deep modifications due to the new wording of the new Civil Code and the new scenario drafted by the principle of maintenance of the contract. The presented thesis covers the differences between the old regulation supported by the old Civil Code (1916 – “CC/16”, articles 86 to 113) and the new one (2002 – “CC/02”, articles 138 to 166). Besides that, it deals with the consequences of the extinguishment of the contract due to mistake, including the possibility of indemnification of the other party. The questions posed, which are beneath this thesis, are: in which situations a party may avoid a contract for mistake? The existence of the mistake, solely, is enough to make the contract unenforceable? And what are the consequences? Is there any duty of indemnification? The answers will be different according to the rules of the Civil Code of 1916 and the 2002 one. In general, writers have pointed out as the modification introduced by the new Civil Code the protection of the other party that has not acted in mistake. Actually, this protection has been in evidence since the old Civil Code (CC/16), what was put into practice throughout the duty of indemnification. Thus, the protection of the other party is not the change introduced by the new Civil Code (CC/02). The point is that the new law, besides protecting the other party, protects also the contract itself, as a means of protection of the market, or, in other words, all other contractual relations that depend on it, direct or indirectly. And this protection is put into practice by making more difficult to terminate the contract for mistake. In this sense, the new Civil Code added one more requisite: the recognosibility of the mistake.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This work aims to analyze the semantic movements in Cartas portuguesas, assigned to Mariana Alcoforado. After the authorial problematic´s presentation in the book, at the introduccion, there is a study´s division in two moments. In the first, it finds to situate the book between the produccion of the baroque period, as well as to delimit aspects of its main theme (the love) and its genre (letter). In the second, it starts with a panoramic lecture of the axis semantics movement in the Cartas, to verify how its appears in each letter. With the sense´s displacement, dominated by Passion and Mistake´s axis, as well as to suggest this work´s title, it realizes a change in writing´s focus, that begins in the loved object, passes to the felling, until arrives in the writing´s recuse, to the peace´s search. With this, it notes that passion moves the writing, in this book. / Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar os movimentos semânticos das Cartas portuguesas, atribuídas a Mariana Alcoforado. Após a apresentação da problemática autoral que perpassa a obra, ainda na introdução, tem-se a divisão do estudo em dois momentos. No primeiro, procura-se situar a obra dentre a produção do período barroco, bem como delimitar aspectos de seu tema principal (o amor) e do gênero em que é escrita (epístola). No segundo, parte-se de uma leitura panorâmica do movimento dos eixos semânticos das Cartas, para verificar como eles aparecem em cada carta. Pelo deslocamento dos sentidos, dominados pelos eixos da Paixão e do Engano, tal como sugere o título deste trabalho, percebe-se uma mudança no foco da escrita, que começa no objeto amado, passa para o sentimento, até chegar na recusa da escrita pela busca da paz. Com isso, nota-se que a paixão funciona como o motivo propulsor da escrita, na obra.

Diplomová práce zkoumá jednotlivé kapitoly knihy Církevní Dějiny napsané Eusebiem Cézarejským, jež je označován jako "otec církevních dějin", přesto kniha obsahuje velké množství nejasností, rozporů, nepřesností a její celkový obsah vyznívá jako snaha o apologii raděj nežli seriózní historické dílo. V diplomové práci vycházím z velkého množství pramenných zdrojů od respektovaných učenců v oblasti teologie rané církve a historie. Cílem práce je důkladně prozkoumat jednotlivé kapitoly, které vykazují největší množství problematických částí stejně tak jako závěr, zda Eusebius se pokoušel cíleně "ohnout" pravdu ve své upřímné víře či zda jeho cílem bylo sepsat obranu křesťanství, která se pouze tváří jako seriózní historické dílo. Annotation The master thesis focus on a particular chapter of Historia Ecclesiastica written by Eusebius of Caesarea, who is renowned as "father of church history" although the book contains a number of serious mistakes, interpolations, discrepancies and exaggerations. In its complexity could be perceived as an apologetic writing rather than historical writing. I used a great amount of sources by respected scholars in my master thesis while its aim is research of particular chapters which demonstrate the most controversies. In the conclusion I expect the biggest challenge will...

The presented Master's thesis entitled "Pronounciation mistakes of Czech students learning Portuguese" tries to depict the most common mistakes in the pronounciation of Portuguese sounds by Czech students. The thesis is divided into two parts: theoretical and practical. The theoretical part, based on a careful research of specialized materials, deals with phonetics, the phonological aspect of a language, phonology, the description of speech forming processes, sound systems of Portuguese, rules for correct pronounciation of respective sounds and also interference - the influences of a person's mother tongue while learning Portuguese. The theoretical part served as a basis for the practical part. In the practical part an analysis was carried out, using a number of audio recordings taken from first-year to fifth-year students of Portuguese Studies at Charles University, Faculty of Arts. The aim of this analysis was to detect typical mistakes made by Czech Students in the pronounciation of Portuguese sounds. The observed pronounciation phenomena are recorded in tables, each phenomena separately. In conclusion, the thesis provides an evaluation of the analysis.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The problem of mistake and its impact on the formation of contract is a central issue in the law of contract of all legal systems. The thesis investigates this area by considering the manner in which it has been dealt with in Germany and South African law. Although both legal systems are of the civilian origin. The German law is a codified system, whereas South African law is an uncodified one in which in the absence of legislation, legal problems are resolved by decisions of the High Court operating under a strict doctrine of legal precedent. German law does not in a formal sense acknowledge that judges can make law, but the thesis demonstrates the considerable weight that is nevertheless attached to judicial decisions in practice. The impact of differences in legal methodology on substantive law is a principal theme of the investigation. It is addressed by means of a systematic comparison between the manner in which the two systems deal with concepts such as heiuristic act and declarations of will, the notion of contract and the relevance of offer and acceptance as its constituent elements. Thereafter the broad topic of mistake as a circumstance that vitiates agreement and other defects of will such as deceit, duress and undue influence are considered. Whereas German law as a codified system presents a comprehensive regulation of the issues, a case law system such as that of South Africa can only deal with matters brought before the courts by parties engaged in a dispute. Because judges also tend to frame decisions as narrowly as possible, such a system characterised by gaps in the law in relations to issues that have not been authoritatively determined. The resultant uncertainty is exacerbated by the fact that different courts might decide the same issue differently and that a considerable period of time might elapse before the issue is settled by the highest court in the judicial hierarchy. In regard to matters of substance, both systems proceed from a common conceptual framework, but often tend to emphasise different aspects in coming to solutions. German law places great store on the notion of the declaration of will, a concept which is analysed in considerable detail in relation to its treatment in South African law. Although South African law recognises the notion of a juristic act, there is no sign of the refined and systematic discussion of the concept along the lines of German law. In consequence, concepts such as offer and acceptance play a less important role in South African law. In relation to the treatment of mistake as well the greater emphasis of German law on the declarations of will is in marked contrast to the more subjective approach of South African law and its resort to a theory of reliance as a corrective liability in cases of disagreement. Both systems adopt an approach with subjective and objective elements. but with a different mix of these elements in each instance. An overriding conclusion is that both systems might have erred in placing too great an emphasis on objective elements in the determination of when contractual liability should be imposed. It is contended that renewed attention to the doctrine of culpa in contrahendo might enable both South African and German law to deal more satisfactorily with the problem of disagreement in contract. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die probleem van dwaling en die uitwerking daarvan op kontraksluiting is 'n sentrale vraagstuk van die kontraktereg van alle lande. Die proefskrif ondersoek hierdie problematiek deur die hantering daarvan in sowel die Duitse as die Suid-Afrikaanse reg te oorweeg. Alhoewel beide hierdie stelsels van romanisriese oorsprong is, is die Duitse 'n gekodifiseerde en die Suid-Afrikaanse 'n ongekodifiseerde stelsel. In die afwesigheid van wetgewing, word regsprobleme in Suid-Afrika aan die hand van die gemenereg deur middel van beslissings van die hoë hof opgelos ingevolge 'n strenge presedentestelsel. Alhoewel die Duitse reg nie formeel erken dat regterlike beslissings regskeppend kan werk nie, toon die proefskrif aan dat daar tog in die praktyk groot gewig aan regterlike uitsprake geheg word. Die uitwerking van hierdie metodologiese verskille is 'n hooftema van die ondersoek. Dit geskied by wyse van 'n sistemariese vergelyking van die hantering in die twee stelsels van begrippe soos die regshandeling en die wilsverklaring. die kontrak en die rol van aanbod en aanname as konstituterende elemente van 'n kontrak. Hierna kom die breë vraagstuk van dwaling aan die orde as 'n omstandigheid war wilsooreenstemming ondermyn, asook die samehangende kwessies van bedrog, dwang en onbehoorlike beïnvloeding. Alhoewel beide stelsels in substantiewe aangeleenthede uitgaan van 'n gemeenskaplike konseptueie raamwerk. word aangetoon dat by die bereik van oplossings, die klem dikwels heel verskillend geplaas word. Van sentrale belang is vir die Duitse reg is die wilsverklaringsbegrip, wat in vergelyking met die behandeling daarvan. In Suid-Afrika in groot besonderhede ontleed word. Alhoewel die Suid-Afrikaanse reg, soos die Duitse reg uitgaan van die begrip regshandeling, ontbreek die genuanseerde en sistemariese behandeling van die Duitse reg. As gevolg hiervan speel die begrippe aanbod en aanname 'n relatief mlnder belangrike rol in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg. Met betrekking tot die dwalingsproblematiek ook is die groter klem op die Duitse reg op die wilsverklaring van die partye opvallend en in skerp teenstelling, tot die meer subjektiewe benadering van die Suid- Afrikaanse reg en die aanwending van die vertrouensteorie as 'n korrektiewe aanspreeklikheid in gevalle van 'n gebrek aan wilsooreesntemming. Alhoewel albei stelsels erkenning gee aan subjektiewe en objektiewe elemente, is daar verskille vir sover dit die relatiewe klem op elkeen aangaan. Die oorkoepelende gevolgtrekking is dat albei stelsels miskien te veel gewig gee aan die objektiewe element by die bepaling van aanspreeklikheid. Die voorstel is dat daar weer met vrug na die leerstuk van culpa in contrahendo gekyk sou kon word.

Du fait des progrès scientifiques modernes dans le domaine médical, ont été soulevés de nombreux problèmes concernant la responsabilité du service public hospitalier à cause de l'utilisation des méthodes scientifiques modernes en médecine. Le juge administratif français a été et est le moteur de l'évolution des règles en matière de responsabilité du service public hospitalier. Ce n'est pas le cas de la juridiction administrative au Liban. Mais plusieurs réformes législatives ont été adoptées au Liban depuis 1996. La thèse permet de confronter les solutions du droit positif français et du droit positif libanais et de rechercher les raisons d'une responsabilité médicale rarement mise en œuvre au Liban alors que les principes juridiques posés sont proches du système français. / Because of modern scientific progress in medical field, many problems, concerning the hospital public service liability, have been established as a consequence of the use of modern scientific methods in medicine. The French administrative judge has been and is a central point of rules evolutions in the field of hospital public service liability. This is not the situation of administrative jurisdiction in Lebanon. But several legislative reforms have been enacted in Lebanon since 1996. This research permit to discuss solutions of positive French and Lebanese laws, and to know why medical liability, in Lebanon, is rarely in service. Although Lebanon has the same rules and principles of France.

O aprendizado muitas vezes se encontra vinculado à idéia de que é necessário superar o estado de desconhecimento, de não-saber, para alcançar o saber enquanto instância almejada. No presente trabalho, estudamos o conceito de douta ignorância desenvolvido por Nicolau de Cusa por acreditar que ele encerra uma dimensão essencialmente pedagógica que se revela na importância que esse filósofo do século XV dá ao não-saber. Para ele, a busca pelo conhecimento está inteiramente alicerçada na ciência que o homem alcança de sua própria ignorância. É o saber de seu não-saber que permite que o ser humano construa, de forma progressiva, o conhecimento. A concepção de conhecimento à qual subjaz uma imagem dinâmica de ser humano como a que encontramos em Nicolau de Cusa retorna em pensadores contemporâneos. Bachelard, por exemplo, no século XX, reafirma a positividade dos erros, defendendo a sua importância na construção do saber científico e no processo de aprendizagem. Aquilo que, no discurso comum, era apontado apenas como intercorrência a ser evitada, passa a ser revalorizado, resgatando uma tradição que acreditamos ter em Nicolau de Cusa um expoente fundacional. Nosso trabalho busca apresentar uma abordagem positiva desses dois elementos constitutivos do aprender o não-saber e o erro , considerados parte de um processo que entra em movimento quando o professor permite que o aluno exercite o ato de formular perguntas: na formulação de uma pergunta está contido o potencial de ir além de um saber já adquirido, de superar dificuldades ou erros. A pergunta abre a perspectiva do conhecimento e aponta para o que ainda está por ser alcançado. Ela é, assim, um veículo para a continuidade do aprendizado. / Learning finds itself many times tied to the idea that it is necessary to surmount the state of ignorance, of unknowing, in order to achieve knowledge as a yearned instance. In the present work, we studied the concept of learned ignorance developed by Nicholas of Cusa due to our belief that it contains an essential pedagogic dimension which reveals itself in the importance this philosopher from the XV century confers to the unknown. According to him, the search for knowledge is entirely based on the science man acquires of his own ignorance. It is the knowledge of what is unknown that allows the human being to build knowledge progressively. The conception of knowledge to which underlies a dynamic image of the human being reassembles in contemporary thinkers. In the XX century, Bachelard, for instance, reaffirms the mistake positivity, defending its importance to the construction of scientific knowledge in the process of learning. What, in the common discourse, was cited merely as intercurrence starts to be revalued, recovering a tradition we believe has in Nicholas of Cusa a founding exponent. Our work aims to present a positive approach of these two learning constitutive elements the unknown and the mistake considered, in this tradition, part of a process that begins its movement when the teacher allows the student to practice the act of formulating questions: within the formulation of a question is contained the potential to go beyond an acquired knowledge, to surmount difficulties or mistakes. The question widens the perspective of knowledge and indicates what is yet to be achieved. It is, therefore, a means for the resumption of learning.

O aprendizado muitas vezes se encontra vinculado à idéia de que é necessário superar o estado de desconhecimento, de não-saber, para alcançar o saber enquanto instância almejada. No presente trabalho, estudamos o conceito de douta ignorância desenvolvido por Nicolau de Cusa por acreditar que ele encerra uma dimensão essencialmente pedagógica que se revela na importância que esse filósofo do século XV dá ao não-saber. Para ele, a busca pelo conhecimento está inteiramente alicerçada na ciência que o homem alcança de sua própria ignorância. É o saber de seu não-saber que permite que o ser humano construa, de forma progressiva, o conhecimento. A concepção de conhecimento à qual subjaz uma imagem dinâmica de ser humano como a que encontramos em Nicolau de Cusa retorna em pensadores contemporâneos. Bachelard, por exemplo, no século XX, reafirma a positividade dos erros, defendendo a sua importância na construção do saber científico e no processo de aprendizagem. Aquilo que, no discurso comum, era apontado apenas como intercorrência a ser evitada, passa a ser revalorizado, resgatando uma tradição que acreditamos ter em Nicolau de Cusa um expoente fundacional. Nosso trabalho busca apresentar uma abordagem positiva desses dois elementos constitutivos do aprender o não-saber e o erro , considerados parte de um processo que entra em movimento quando o professor permite que o aluno exercite o ato de formular perguntas: na formulação de uma pergunta está contido o potencial de ir além de um saber já adquirido, de superar dificuldades ou erros. A pergunta abre a perspectiva do conhecimento e aponta para o que ainda está por ser alcançado. Ela é, assim, um veículo para a continuidade do aprendizado. / Learning finds itself many times tied to the idea that it is necessary to surmount the state of ignorance, of unknowing, in order to achieve knowledge as a yearned instance. In the present work, we studied the concept of learned ignorance developed by Nicholas of Cusa due to our belief that it contains an essential pedagogic dimension which reveals itself in the importance this philosopher from the XV century confers to the unknown. According to him, the search for knowledge is entirely based on the science man acquires of his own ignorance. It is the knowledge of what is unknown that allows the human being to build knowledge progressively. The conception of knowledge to which underlies a dynamic image of the human being reassembles in contemporary thinkers. In the XX century, Bachelard, for instance, reaffirms the mistake positivity, defending its importance to the construction of scientific knowledge in the process of learning. What, in the common discourse, was cited merely as intercurrence starts to be revalued, recovering a tradition we believe has in Nicholas of Cusa a founding exponent. Our work aims to present a positive approach of these two learning constitutive elements the unknown and the mistake considered, in this tradition, part of a process that begins its movement when the teacher allows the student to practice the act of formulating questions: within the formulation of a question is contained the potential to go beyond an acquired knowledge, to surmount difficulties or mistakes. The question widens the perspective of knowledge and indicates what is yet to be achieved. It is, therefore, a means for the resumption of learning.

This diploma thesis deals with the number line as a tool to improve pupil's understanding of various mathematical concepts, structures, properties and algorithms. The aim of the thesis is to determine how are lower secondary pupils able to use the number line and to connect findings with the content of their textbooks. The thesis consists of a theoretical and a practical part. The theoretical part introduces the topic of number line, deals with the problems used for testing in the Czech Republic and presents several researches on this topic. The theoretical part, together with the analysis of current state of the number line usage in teaching, serves as a basis for an experimental investigation that is covered in the practical part. After a pilot testing with 19 pupils, the main testing was conducted in 7 classes of two Prague primary schools. The total of 156 pupils participated in the main testing and 8 of the pupils were later interviewed about their tests. The results are presented in the practical part. It turned out that there is a correspondence between textbook content and pupils' errors while working with number line and that pupils struggle with representing of fractions on the number line. In the conclusion some recommendation for teachers were put forward concerning the usage of the...