Transforming human movement into live sound can be used as a method to enhance motor skill learning via the provision of augmented perceptual feedback. A small but growing number of studies hint at the substantial efficacy of this approach, termed 'movement sonification'. However there has been sparse discussion in Psychology about how movement should be mapped onto sound to best facilitate learning. The current thesis draws on contemporary research conducted in Psychology and theoretical debates in other disciplines more directly concerned with sonic interaction - including Auditory Display and Electronic Music-Making - to propose an embodied account of sonification as feedback. The empirical portion of the thesis both informs and tests some of the assumptions of this approach with the use of a custom bimanual coordination paradigm. Four motor skill learning studies were conducted with the use of optical motion-capture. Findings support the general assumption that effective mappings aid learning by making task-intrinsic perceptual information more readily available and meaningful, and that the relationship between task demands and sonic information structure (or, between action and perception) should be complementary. Both the theoretical and empirical treatments of sonification for skill learning in this thesis suggest the value of an approach which addresses learner experience of sonified interaction while grounding discussion in the links between perception and action.

Idosos tendem a direcionar a atenção para o movimento do próprio corpo, realizando o controle online do movimento, que tem sido associado com a ativação ineficaz do sistema muscular, e a inibição de processos automáticos eficientes de controle (CHIVIACOWSKY, WULF e WALLY, 2010). O foco de atenção vem sendo apresentado como um dos quatro fatores mais influentes na aprendizagem motora, sendo o foco de atenção externo capaz de promover desempenho qualitativamente superior e acelerar a aprendizagem, pela possibilidade da adoção de padrões mais automáticos de controle, utilizando menos processamento consciente (WULF, SHEA E LEWTHWAITE, 2010). Por outro lado, há evidências de que a instrução do foco externo de atenção não influencia por si o modo de controle do movimento e que as vantagens na adoção do foco são dependentes do nível de habilidade do executante e do volume de instrução fornecido. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste trabalho foi examinar se a adoção do foco de atenção, interno (FI) e externo (FE), influencia na aprendizagem de uma habilidade motora por idosos. Foram analisados dois grupos de vinte idosos com idade entre 60 e 75 anos, na tarefa de arremesso de dardo de salão. Os resultados mostraram que, embora os dois grupos tenham melhorado o desempenho com a prática e tenham sido capazes de aprender, o grupo FE demonstrou discreta vantagem nos estágios iniciais de aprendizagem. Apesar disso, também foram encontrados indícios de que as instruções quando relembradas podem ter retirado FE do controle automático, causando queda de desempenho. Considerando que as diferenças de desempenho encontradas no início do processo de aprendizagem não se mantiveram, particularmente, no teste de retenção da habilidade, não é possível aceitar a hipótese de que o foco externo seja favorável na aprendizagem do arremesso de dardos por idosos. / Elderly tend to direct attention toward to their body movements in an online movement control mode, which it has been associated with a not efficient muscle system activation, and an inhibition of an effective automatic process of control (CHIVIACOWSKY, WULF e WALLY, 2010). Focus of attention has been presented as one of the four main factors affecting motor learning. It seems that external focus of attention can promote qualitative superior performance and speed up learning by adopting automatic patterns of control, using less conscious processing (WULF, SHEA E LEWTHWAITE, 2010). In the other hand, there are some evidences that the external focus of attention only does not affect movement control mode and the advantages on the focus adoption are dependent on the learner skill level and also on the given instruction volume. In this sense, the objective of this study was to examine whether the adoption of a focus of attention, internal (FI) and external (FE), affect the learning of a motor skill in old age. Two groups with 20 individuals between 60 and 75 years old were analyzed on the darts throwing toward a static target. Results showed that although the two groups have improved performance with practice and were able to learn, FE group showed discrete advantage in the learning initials stages. Despite of that, there was also some indicatives that when instructions are repeated it can take FE off of the automatic control, which causes performance decrease. Considering that the performance differences found in the beginning of learning did not maintain, particularly, in the retention test, it is not possible to accept the hypothesis that the external focus is favorable in the darts throwing learning in old age

Ao longo da infância e juventude se faz importante avaliar o desempenho motor para monitorar o desenvolvimento motor e subsidiar objetivos de intervenção. Há diversos instrumentos com o intuito de avaliar o desempenho motor de bebês, crianças e jovens, porém uma questão que é apontada na literatura diz respeito a especificidade de cada instrumento quanto ao seu contexto. Diversos instrumentos de avaliação motora têm sido desenvolvidos no decorrer do tempo, e muitos destes foram elaborados para mensurar o mesmo fenômeno no âmbito motor, no entanto, tais instrumentos podem apresentar resultados distintos para um mesmo objetivo. Desta forma, torna-se importante verificar se estes instrumentos permitem fazer o mesmo diagnóstico. Com isso, o presente estudo tem como objetivo investigar a associação entre o TGMD-2 e o KTK, considerando tanto o desempenho quanto o diagnóstico. A amostra do presente estudo foi composta por 228 crianças pertencentes ao Estudo Longitudinal Misto de Crescimento e Desenvolvimento Motor de Muzambinho-MG, contrabalanceadas por sexo e idade (6 a 11 anos de idade). Foram realizadas avaliações por meio dos testes KTK e TGMD-2. A análise dos filmes foi realizada por avaliadores treinados com índice de concordância inter e intra individual acima de 85%. Os valores obtidos indicaram que tanto o desempenho quanto o diagnóstico dos testes não são associados, mesmo considerando a idade e sexo dos sujeitos. Os resultados apresentam um novo cenário sobre a questão da avaliação motora na infância e permitiram discutir aspectos sobre a complementariedade das baterias quanto ao domínio do desenvolvimento motor na infância / Throughout childhood and youth becomes important to assess motor performance to monitor the motor development and support intervention goals. There are several tools in order to evaluate the motor performance of infants, children and young people, but an issue that is reported in the literature concerns the specificity of each instrument as to its context. Several motor assessment tools have been developed over time, and many of these are designed to measure the same phenomenon under motor development, however, such instruments may present different results for the same goal. Thus, it is important to check that these instruments allow you to make the same diagnosis. Thus, the present study aims to investigate the association between TGMD-2 and the KTK, considering both performance diagnosis. The study sample consisted of 228 children belonging to the Joint Longitudinal Study on Growth and Development of Motor Muzambinho-MG, counterbalanced by sex and age (6-11 years old). Evaluations were performed through the KTK and TGMD-2 tests. The analysis of the films was carried out by trained assessors with level of inter and intra individual above 85%. The results indicate that both the performance and the diagnosis of the tests are not associated, regardless of age and gender of the subjects. The results present a new scenario on the issue of motor assessment in childhood and allowed a discussion on the complementary aspects of the batteries on the motor development of the area in childhood

Background: For children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), the acquisition and performance of everyday visual-motor activities such as buttoning, shoe tying, cutting with scissors or writing, presents a major challenge. Regardless of the activity considered, children with DCD are typically slower and less accurate than their peers. Given the well-acknowledged difficulties of children with DCD, it is surprising to find very few research studies systematically exploring visual-motor skill acquisition and performance in children with DCD. Objective: The overall objective of this study was to systematically describe visual-motor skill acquisition and task performance in children with DCD. Methods: Twenty-four children (8 years 11 months to 12 years 11 months) were recruited for this study; 12 children with DCD, 12 children developing typically with regards to their motor skills. A computer-based aiming task completed with three different cursor controls of increasing levels of difficulty (mouse, joystick, novel controller) was designed for this study. Mixed-effect modelling and visual graph analyses were performed to describe the influence of motor ability and task difficulty on visual-motor skill acquisition and task performance. Results: Motor ability modulated the impact of task difficulty on visual-motor skill acquisition and task performance. Children with DCD were as fast and as accurate as their peers in their initial performance of the simple, well-learned task (mouse). However, they were slower and less accurate when performing the complex and novel visual-motor task. Over repeated trials, the visual-motor task performance of children with DCD improved on all tasks, even for the simple. With regard to the complex, novel task, once children with DCD understood the features of the task, their performance also improved and approached that of their peers. Conclusion: While children with DCD can generally be characterized as less accurate and slower than their peers, this characterization needs to be specified and qualified; it is probably best not applied to a well-learned task.

This project measured the effectiveness of after school physical activity programs which emphasized moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and motor skill improvement. Children (n=41) from sport-based program and low-organized games-based programs were recruited. MVPA was measured using accelerometry and motor skill proficiency via the Test of Gross Motor Proficiency 2. Although, children in both programs participated in significant MVPA (more than 50% of program time engaged in MVPA), sport-based program participants obtained significantly (p<0.05) more MVPA. Children in the games-based program experienced a greater increase in gross motor quotient scores, though not significant (p>0.05), but with a moderate effect size (?=0.06). Overall after school physical activity programs provide positive contributions to daily MVPA. Participants in low-organized games based programs may experience a greater increase in motor skill proficiency. Further research is needed to determine the effects of program type on MVPA and motor skill development.

Background: For children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), the acquisition and performance of everyday visual-motor activities such as buttoning, shoe tying, cutting with scissors or writing, presents a major challenge. Regardless of the activity considered, children with DCD are typically slower and less accurate than their peers. Given the well-acknowledged difficulties of children with DCD, it is surprising to find very few research studies systematically exploring visual-motor skill acquisition and performance in children with DCD. Objective: The overall objective of this study was to systematically describe visual-motor skill acquisition and task performance in children with DCD. Methods: Twenty-four children (8 years 11 months to 12 years 11 months) were recruited for this study; 12 children with DCD, 12 children developing typically with regards to their motor skills. A computer-based aiming task completed with three different cursor controls of increasing levels of difficulty (mouse, joystick, novel controller) was designed for this study. Mixed-effect modelling and visual graph analyses were performed to describe the influence of motor ability and task difficulty on visual-motor skill acquisition and task performance. Results: Motor ability modulated the impact of task difficulty on visual-motor skill acquisition and task performance. Children with DCD were as fast and as accurate as their peers in their initial performance of the simple, well-learned task (mouse). However, they were slower and less accurate when performing the complex and novel visual-motor task. Over repeated trials, the visual-motor task performance of children with DCD improved on all tasks, even for the simple. With regard to the complex, novel task, once children with DCD understood the features of the task, their performance also improved and approached that of their peers. Conclusion: While children with DCD can generally be characterized as less accurate and slower than their peers, this characterization needs to be specified and qualified; it is probably best not applied to a well-learned task.

La rotation mentale (RM) est la capacité à faire tourner mentalement l’image d’un objet en 2 ou en 3 dimensions. C’est une forme d’imagerie mentale qui nécessite des transformations visuo-spatiales. Au regard de sa nature dynamique, la RM se trouve à l’interface entre imagerie mentale et imagerie motrice. Le transfert de RM, ainsi que ses liens avec les processus moteurs, restent à ce jour controversés. Les résultats de ce travail montrent qu’un entraînement spécifique à la RM améliore la performance aux tests de RM, tel que celui de Vandenberg et Kuse (VMRT). Suite à cet entraînement, les différences de genre sont atténuées. Un transfert vers l’apprentissage de l’anatomie a également été observé, attestant de l’existence de micro-compétences, ou micro-expertises, communes entre RM et apprentissage de l’anatomie. Les résultats montrent que ce transfert s’opère aussi dans l’autre sens, de l’apprentissage de l’anatomie vers la perception spatiale d’un mouvement sportif. Dans le même ordre d’idée, chez les enfants, la RM partagerait des micro-expertises avec la motricité lorsque celle-ci intègre des roulades, des changements de directions ou des sauts. L’ensemble des résultats expérimentaux met en évidence qu’un programme d’entraînement spécifique visant l’amélioration de la capacité de RM peut donc se transférer vers l’acquisition de connaissances en anatomie, la motricité, ainsi que le développement moteur de l’enfant. L’émergence de la différence de genre en RM et en imagerie motrice, quant à elle, varie selon les tests utilisés. Pour le VMRT, elle serait effective à partir de l’âge de 9 ans. De nouvelles recherches sur la chronométrie mentale permettront sans doute de déterminer l’émergence de cette différence de genre au regard de la précision de l’imagerie motrice / Mental rotation (MR) is the ability to rotate the mental image of a 2D or 3D object. The relationship between MR and motor processes, as well as the transfer of MR, is still debated in the literature. The present results provided evidence that a specific MR training might contribute to enhance the MR ability, and the performance on the MR tests such as the Vandenberg and Kuse MR test (VMRT). Interestingly, gender differences were attenuated following training. A transfer was further observed on human anatomy learning. MR training and human anatomy learning are therefore hypothesized to share similar micro-competences. Our results also showed a transfer from anatomy learning to the spatial perception of a motor skill. Finally, MR has been found to share some micro-competences with motor performance requiring performing a forward roll, changing of directions and jumping. Hence, MR would be useful for the motor performance itself. Altogether, our results provided evidence that a specific MR training can be transferred to the human anatomy learning process, motor performance, as well as to child motor development. While the emergence of gender differences in MR might depend on the test used, such difference would be effective at 9 years of age for the VMRT. So far, future research remains necessary to determine in greater details the emergence of motor imagery accuracy in regards to its temporal aspects

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:22:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-05-06Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:49:04Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 arias_mrs_me_rcla.pdf: 422723 bytes, checksum: d736e056289a511d09f4b677ecf2ba20 (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / A deterioração do equilíbrio postural, avaliada pelas oscilações corporais, está relacionada ao processo de envelhecimento e diminui com a participação do sistema visual. Na doença de Parkinson (DP), a restrição visual pode gerar mudanças no comportamento oscilatório do corpo em relação a idosos sadios? Esse comportamento oscilatório, em condições de restrição visual, relaciona-se com medidas clínicas e funcionais? Esta pesquisa objetivou conhecer os efeitos da restrição visual sobre as oscilações corporais na postura ereta quase estática dos idosos com DP, compará-los com idosos sadios e conhecer as contribuições da amplitude de movimento articular (ADM) ativa nos membros inferiores, dos tipos de alinhamento postural, do desempenho em equilíbrio funcional nas oscilações corporais quando são considerados o comprometimento e o estágio clínico da doença. A análise cinemática bidimensional das oscilações corporais de dez idosos sadios e dez idosos com DP, na postura ereta quase estática, nas direções ântero-posterior (ap) e médio-lateral (ml) em condições de olhos abertos (oa) e olhos fechados (of) foi realizada. Teste de ADM ativa no tornozelo, joelho e quadril, escala de Berg, teste de alinhamento postural, Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) e escala de Hoehn & Yahr (HY) foram utilizados. O efeito da restrição visual sobre a oscilação corporal ap foi mais forte nos idosos sadios. Em todos os idosos, a maioria das associações e predições ocorreu em função da restrição visual. / The postural equilibrium deterioration measured by body oscillations is related to the aging process and decrease with the visual system participation. In Parkinson’s disease (PD), can the visual constraint change the oscillatory behavior in relation to the healthy elderly? Is this oscillatory behavior related to the clinical and functional measurements under visual constraint conditions? This study aimed to know the effects of visual constraints on the body oscillations in quiet standing posture of PD patients, to compare them with healthy elderly and to know the contributions of active range of motion (ROM) of the lower limbs, the types of body alignment, and the functional balance performance on body oscillations when the clinical stage and the compromising evolution of the PD are considered. Two-dimensional kinematic analyses of the body oscillations of 10 healthy and 10 PD elderly in quiet standing in anterior-posterior (ap) and medium-lateral (ml) directions under eyes open (eo) and eyes closed (ec) conditions were performed. The active ROM of ankle, knee and hip, berg’s scale, postural alignment test, Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS), and Hoehn & Yahr (HY) scale were utilized. The effect of visual constraint on the body oscillation AP was stronger in healthy elderly. In all the participants, the majority of associations and predictions occurred as a function of the visual constraint. In the PD patients, the active ROM of hip hyperextension was the predicted variable of body oscillation in the ap direction and in ec condition. In healthy elderly, in the ap direction, the active ROM of ankle dorsiflexion was the predicted variable of body oscillations on both conditions eo and ec; in ml direction, the active ROM of hip abduction was the predicted variable under eo condition.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:44:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MarcosARSJ_DISSERT.pdf: 3313809 bytes, checksum: 12cc0e861a6a05e85364b57b637c08d6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-28 / To mesure the human performance is a challenge, mainly due to the multidimensional factor movement. Instruments, mostly only assess one dimension of it. Objective: To develop a prototype capable of measuring the skills of human performance and check its validity using method comparison approach. Methods: The study was divided into two stages. The first Prototype was developed and tested simultaneously with an instrument to study the Rectilinear Uniform Motion and Uniformly Miscellaneous. In the second phase the sample consisted of Paralympic basketball athletes (n=09) and karate athletes (n=31) and all agreed to the terms of participation in the research. The evaluation of performance measures was performed with the prototype, the results obtained were compared with the data calculated by a statistical package is used as a reference. Results: All variables calculated by the prototype showed no significant differences when compared with the results calculated by the reference instrument and statistical package. Conclusion: The prototype has been developed and the results obtained in laboratory and field indicate that the prototype can be used for measuring human performance measures, with immediate results without the need for a conventional computer return, provided they fulfill the criteria described / mesurar as desempenho humano ? um desafio, principalmente devido ao fator multidimensional do movimento. Os instrumentos, em sua maioria, avaliam apenas uma dimens?o do mesmo. Objetivo: desenvolver um prot?tipo capaz de mensurar as habilidades do desempenho humano e verificar sua validade utilizando abordagem de compara??o de m?todos. M?todos: O estudo foi dividido em duas etapas. A primeira o Prot?tipo foi desenvolvido e testado simultaneamente com um instrumento utilizado para estudo do movimento Retil?neo Uniforme e Uniformemente Variado. Na segunda fase a amostra constituiu-se de atletas paral?mpicos de basquete (n=09) e atletas de Karate (n=31) e todos concordaram com o termos da participa??o da pesquisa. A avalia??o das medidas do desempenho foi realizada com o Prot?tipo, os resultados obtidos foram comparados com os dados calculados por um Pacote Estat?stico sendo utilizado como refer?ncia. Resultados: todas as vari?veis calculadas pelo Prot?tipo n?o apresentaram diferen?as significativas quando comparadas com os resultados calculados pelo instrumento de refer?ncia e pacote estat?stico. Conclus?o: O prot?tipo foi desenvolvido e os resultados obtidos em laborat?rio e campo indicam que o prot?tipo pode ser usado para mensurar as medidas do desempenho humano, com retorno imediato dos resultados sem necessidade de um computador convencional, desde que observados os crit?rios descritos

Os objetivos do estudo foram a) examinar a dinâmica do desempenho técnico (DT) em jogos reduzidos (JR) de jovens jogadores de futebol em um período de tempo de 14,5 meses, e b) verificar a influência das características antropométricas e de desempenho físico no DT. Os dados de 30 jogadores, considerados de nível elite, da categoria Sub14 (14,3 ± 0,3 anos, 170,5 ± 6,2 cm, 59,6 ± 6,2 kg) foram retidos para análise. Em 4 momentos distintos (M1, M2, M3, M4) de 1 temporada competitiva, foram filmados 16 JR e realizadas medidas antropométricas e testes físicos (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1, corrida de 10m e 30m, saltos verticais [com e sem contramovimento]). Cada jogador participou em um JR em cada momento de coleta. A quantificação de ações de DT foi realizada através da análise notacional; foi registrado todo tipo de ação em que fosse observada uma clara tentativa de intervir sobre a trajetória da bola. Escores para cada ação originaram-se da frequência de ocorrência. Foram atribuídos escores para envolvimento total (ET), envolvimento com bola (EB), desempenho defensivo total (DDT) e envolvimento ofensivo total (EOT). Uma ANOVA de medidas repetidas foi utilizada para examinar as alterações nas medidas antropométricas e de desempenho físico ao longo dos 4 momentos. Para examinar as alterações nas variáveis de DT foi adotada análise inferencial baseada na magnitude do efeito (tamanho do efeito = TE); considerando como mínima alteração prática importante: TE >= 0,20. Para verificar a influência do nível de desempenho físico no DT, os jogadores foram divididos em \"maior\" e \"menor\" nível de desempenho no Yo-Yo IR1. Uma análise discriminante foi utilizada para examinar diferenças entre grupos, para ET, DDT e EOT. Medidas de estatura e massa corporal também foram incluídas no modelo. Diferenças significantes (aumento) foram observadas ao longo do estudo para as medidas de desempenho no salto vertical sem e com contramovimento (F = 6,75; p = 0,003; F = 31,1; p = 0,001, respectivamente) e no Yo-Yo IR1 (F = 29,5; p = 0,001), assim como para estatura (F = 43,4; p = 0,01) e massa corporal (F = 28,6; p = 0,01). Adicionalmente, os resultados mostraram uma \"possível\" diminuição nos valores de frequência de DDT (M1 vs. M3, e M2 vs M3). Em oposição, observou-se um \"possível\" aumento nas ações de DDT, de M3 para M4. Para o EOT, foram \"possíveis\" as reduções de M1 para M2 e de M1 para M4. Para EB, comparando os momentos M3 e M4, observou-se diminuição \"muito possível\". Uma \"possível\" redução de M1 para M2 e M1 para M4, para ET, também foi observada. Os resultados da análise discriminante demonstraram que o grupo com maior desempenho no Yo-Yo IR1 (capacidade de realizar esforços intermitentes de alta intensidade) apresentava o maior número de ações para DDT em M1 (vs grupo menor desempenho no Yo-Yo IR1 [Wilks\' lambda = 0,77; p = 0,03]). Este resultado não foi observado para os demais momentos do estudo (valores de Wilks\' lambda variaram entre 0,82 e 0,99; p > 0,05) / The objectives of the study were a) examining the dynamic of the Technical Performance (TP) of young soccer players in small-sided-games (SSG) in a 14,5-month period, and b) verify the influence of the anthropometric characteristics and the physical performance on the TP. The data of 30 players, considered of elite level, from the U-14 category (average and standard deviation: 14,3 ± 0,3 years, 170,5 ± 6,2 cm, 5,9 ± 6,2 kg), were kept for analysis. In 4 different moments (M1, M2, M3, M4) of one competitive season, 16 SSG were filmed, and in the same period, anthropometric measures and physical tests performance were collected (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1, 10m and 30m sprint, vertical jumps [with and without countermovement]). Each player participated in one SSG in each collection moment. The TP actions quantification was executed through notational analysis; it was registered all type of action on which a clear attempt to intervene the ball\'s trajectory could be observed. The scores for each action originated from the frequency of occurrence. Scores were attributed to Total Involvement (TI), Ball Involvement (BI), Total Defensive Performance (TDP) and Total Offensive Involvement (TOI). A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to examine changes in physical and anthropometric measures during the 4 assessment moments. To examine the changes in the variables of TP, the inferential analysis based on the magnitude of the effect was adopted (effect\'s size = ES); considering as minimum practical important alteration: ES >= 0,2. To verify the influence of the physical performance level on the TP, the players were divided into \"higher\" and \"lower\" performance levels in the Yo-Yo IR1. A discriminant analysis was used to examine differences among groups, to TI, TDP and TOI. Measurements of height and body mass were also included. Significant differences (increase) were observed throughout the study for the performance measures in the vertical jump with and without countermovement (F = 6,75; p = 0,003; F = 31,1; p = 0,001, respectively), Yo-Yo IR1 (F = 29,5; p = 0,001), stature (F = 43,4; p = 0,01) and body mass (F = 28,6; p = 0,01). Furthermore, the results show a \"possible\" decrease in TDP frequency values (M1 vs. M3, and M2 vs M3). In contrast, a \"possible\" increase in TDP actions was observed, from M3 to M4. For the TOI, the reductions from M1 to M2 and M1 to M4 were considered \"possible\". Concerning the BI, comparing moments M3 and M4, a \"very possible\" decrease was observed. For the TI, a \"possible difference\" with reduction of M1 to M2 and M1 to M4, was also observed. The results of the discriminant analysis showed that the group with higher performance in the Yo-Yo IR1 (ability to perform intermittent high-intensity efforts) presented the highest number of actions for TDP during M1 (vs lowest performance group in the Yo-Yo IR1 (Wilks\' lambda = 0,77; p = 0,03)). This result was not observed for the other moments of the study (Wilks\' lambda values varied between 0,82 and 0,99; p > 0,05)