De nombreuses études en oncoimmunologie portent sur l’échec immunitaire dans le contexte de progression tumorale, mais elles sont plus rares à porter sur un contexte de régression, lorsque le système immunitaire est efficace. De ce fait, bien souvent la littérature met en avant le rôle cytotoxique des lymphocytes T CD8+, ou bien leur anergie dans le contexte de progression tumorale, causée par des cellules myéloïdes telles que les MDSC ou les macrophages de phénotypes M2, considérés comme pro-tumoraux. J’ai pour ma part étudié la réponse immunitaire dans le cadre d’une régression tumorale. Des cellules TC1 transplantées en s.c. dans des souris C57BL6/J, donnent des tumeurs solides d’environ 6mm de diamètre 11 jours plus tard. A ce moment là (J0), les souris sont vaccinées à proximité de la tumeur (priming), par un vaccin contenant la sous-unité B non toxique de la Shiga toxine couplée au peptide E7 de l’HPV16 (exprimé par les TC1), combiné à de l’IFNα. Une semaine plus tard (J7), un « boost » est effectué. Après le boost, la croissance tumorale cesse puis la tumeur régresse. L’analyse cinétique par cytométrie révèle un infiltrat immunitaire important pendant, et précédant la régression tumorale. La nature de cette infiltrat varie avec le temps. A J5, un infiltrat myéloïde est observé, suivi d’un infiltrat lymphocytaire à partir de J8. Une déplétion des cellules T CD8+ inhibe la régression tumorale, alors que dans les souris CXCR3-/-, dans lesquelles les CD8+ ne sont pas déplétés mais leur recrutement est fortement affecté, une régréssion tumorale est possible malgré un infiltrat T CD8+ très faible. Cela laisse penser que d’autres acteurs que les LT cytotoxiques sont nécessaires à la régression tumorale, comme probablement les cellules myéloïdes qui infiltrent le tumeur avant les cellules T. L’analyse de cette population montre une activation des monocytes et macrophages (MHC II+), avec un pic d’activation autour de J9, au début de la régression. La capacité cytotoxique de ces cellules, mesurée in vitro par immunofluorescence est augmentée comparée à des myéloïdes isolées de tumeurs de souris en progression. De plus, l’ajout d’un anticorps anti-TNFα inhibe partiellement cette cytotoxicité. Cela montre qu’après vaccination, les monocytes/macrophages sont capables de tuer les cellules tumorales. Une déplétion partielle des macrophages au moment de la vaccination, à l’aide du PLX3397 (inhibiteur du CSF1R), réduit l'efficacité de la vaccination. Les cellules myéloïdes, lorsqu'elles sont présentes, contribuent fortement à la régression tumorale induit par le vaccin composite, et leur action implique probablement des interactions avec les LT CD8+. C'est ce que suggère l'observation de tumeurs vaccinées dans des souris IFNϒ-/-, dans lesquelles l'efficacité vaccinale est aussi inhibée. Cette thèse montre qu’après une stimulation appropriée, qui peut, comme ici, mimer une infection virale, les cellules myéloïdes peuvent participer activement à la régression tumorale. / Most oncoimmunology studies are performed in an immune failure context of progressing tumor. They rarely describe tumor regressions, when the immune response is efficient. As a result, the literature tends to highlight the cytotoxic role of CD8+ T cell or their anergy in the context of tumor progression, caused by myeloid cells such as the MDSC or M2 polarized macrophages, considered as protumoral. My PhD work has been focused on the immune response in a context of tumor regression. TC1 cells transplanted s.c. in C57 BL6 J mice, give rise to solid tumors of approximately 6 mm diameter 11 days later. At that time (day 0), mice are vaccinated peritumorally for a priming with a composite vaccine containing the subunit B of the Shiga toxin coupled to E7 peptide from HPV16 (present on TC1), combined with the IFNα. A week later (day 7), a boost is made. After the boost, tumor growth stops and the tumor regress. Kinetic cytometric analysis revealed a significant immune infiltrate during and prior to tumor regression. The nature of this infiltrate varies with time. On day 5, a myeloid infiltrate is observed, followed by a lymphocytic infiltrate which is conspicuous after day 8. Depletion of CD8+ T cells inhibits tumor regression, while in CXCR3- /- mice, in which the CD8+ are not depleted but their recruitment is severely affected, tumor regression is possible despite a very low CD8+ T cell infiltrate. This suggests that some effectors, other than cytotoxic T cells, are required for tumor regression, including probably myeloid cells that infiltrate the tumor before T cells. The analysis of this population shows an activation of monocytes and macrophages (MHC II+) with a peak of activation around day 9, early in the regression. The cytotoxic capacity of these cells was tested in vitro, by depositing F4/80+ cells from vaccinated tumors or not, on a TC1 cell monolayers in culture. Only myeloid cells from vaccinated tumors appear to kill tumor cells, and adding an anti-TNFα inhibits this cytotoxicity. This shows that after immunization, monocytes/macrophages are capable of killing tumor cells. A partial depletion of macrophages at the time of vaccination, after treatment with PLX3397 (CSF1R inhibitor), reduces the vaccine efficacy. Myeloid cells contribute significantly to the observed tumor regression, and their action involves interactions with CD8+ T cells. This hypothesis is consistent with the observation of tumors in vaccinated IFNϒ- /- mice, in which the vaccine efficacy is also inhibited. This thesis shows that after an appropriate stimulation, for instance, here, by mimicking a viral infection, myeloid cells can actively participate in tumor regression.

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway takes part in both extracellular and intracellular signals. It is a major regulator of cell metabolism, growth, proliferation and survival. mTOR also regulates critical processes such as cytoskeletal organization, ribosomal biogenesis, transcription and protein synthesis. The mTOR pathway has been implicated in many diseases such as cancer, neurodegeneration and diabetes, which impact homeostasis and cellular functions. Moreover, mTOR has also been shown to play a critical role in immune cell regulation of T and B cells together with neutrophils and antigen presenting cells, as it integrates signals between them extending to the entire immune microenvironment. The aim of my study was to investigate the role of a component of the mTOR complex 1, Raptor, in myeloid cells. My findings show that the absence of Raptor knock out (KO) does not affect bone marrow derived macrophage (BMDM) differentiation and maturation. However, the absence of Raptor influences BMDM polarisation towards an inflammatory phenotype, at least at the level of transcription as observed by increases in mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines such as TNFα, IL-12β, and IL-6. This finding was consolidated by an increase in NFκΒ pathway signalling in Raptor KO BMDMs. Downstream intracellular signalling in myeloid cells was affected by deletion of Raptor as I found reduced S6K phosphorylation in Raptor KO BMDMs compared to wild type (WT) BMDMs. As a consequence of Raptor absence in BMDMs, STAT3 phosphorylation was also reduced. Raptor deletion did not impact the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway, but decreased phosphorylation of ERK. BMDMs lacking Raptor had reduced phagocytic activity as they were also observed to migrate less towards a pancreatic cancer cell line. However preliminary experiments in pancreatic cancer models did not indicate a major role for Raptor in the activity of tumour associated myeloid cells. My results demonstrate that Raptor and by implication mTORC1, is involved in macrophage polarisation and function.

La septicémie et les troubles associés demeurent une cause majeure de mortalité dans les unités de soins intensifs. Des récents travaux ont mis en lumière un lien inattendu entre les mitochondries et les fonctions des cellules immunitaires. Des modifications des fonctions mitochondriales ont pu être observées dans les cellules sanguines périphériques lors de septicémies. Dans le cadre de ce travail de thèse, nous avons cherché à évaluer si la mitophagie pouvait avoir un impact sur les fonctions des phagocytes dans le contexte d’une infection bactérienne. La mitophagie est une autophagie dédiée aux mitochondries qui régit l'élimination des mitochondries dysfonctionnelles. Nous avons démontré ici in vivo et in vitro que les macrophages exposés aux bactéries à Gram négatif ou à leurs composants de la paroi cellulaire (Lipopolysaccharides, LPS) présentent une inhibition marquée de la mitophagie qui constitue un mécanisme de protection contre la septicémie. L'activation des macrophages avec une combinaison LPS/IFNγ entraîne une inhibition précoce de la mitophagie dépendante de PINK1 selon une voie dépendante de STAT1-Caspase 11. Cette inhibition de la mitophagie contribue à expliquer la reprogrammation métabolique observée dans les macrophages classiquement activés (macrophages M1) et conduit à une augmentation de la production de ROS mitochondriaux (mROS). En tant que molécules de signalisation, les mROS conduisent à l'activation des macrophages de manière dépendante de HIF-1α et NF-κB. En outre, ces molécules contribuent à la clairance bactérienne dans les phagocytes activés. Il est intéressant de noter que nous avons démontré in vitro et in vivo que la modulation pharmacologique de la mitophagie permet d'imiter ou de réprimer les effets du LPS sur la polarisation des macrophages, la libération des cytokines et l'activité bactéricide. Pour conclure, ce travail démontre que l'inhibition de la mitophagie est une caractéristique de l'activation LPS-dépendante des macrophages et un mécanisme de protection contre les bactéries à Gram négatif. Cette étude souligne également une relation inconnue entre la signalisation IFNγ, les caspases inflammatoires et la mitophagie. Enfin, nos travaux mettent en lumière l'impact des modulateurs pharmacologiques de la mitophagie sur la fonction des macrophages et ouvrent de nouvelles opportunités pour le développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques pour stimuler la défense de l'hôte. / Sepsis and related organ dysfunctions remain a leading cause of mortality in intensive care units. Increasing evidences have shed light on an unexpected link between mitochondria and immune cell functions. Alterations in mitochondrial functions have been reported in peripheral blood cells in sepsis. We hypothesize here that mitophagy might impact on phagocyte functions in the context of bacterial infection. Mitophagy is a mitochondria-dedicated autophagy that governs the elimination of dysfunctional mitochondria. We demonstrated here in vivo and in vitro that macrophages exposed to Gram-negative bacteria or their cell wall component LPS display a marked inhibition of mitophagy that constitutes a protective mechanism against sepsis. LPS/IFNγ-driven macrophage activation results in early inhibition of PINK1-dependent mitophagy through a STAT1-Caspase 4/11 pathway. This inhibition of mitophagy contributes to explain the metabolic reprogramming observed in classically activated macrophages and leads to a rise in mitochondrial ROS (mROS) production. As signaling molecules, mROS lead to macrophages activation in a HIF-1α- and NF-κB-dependent manner. Furthermore, these molecules contribute to bacterial clearance in activated phagocytes. Interestingly, we demonstrated in vitro and in vivo that pharmacological modulation of mitophagy allows either mimicking or repressing the effects of LPS on macrophages polarization, cytokine release and bactericidal activity. To conclude, this work demonstrates that inhibition of mitophagy is a feature of LPS-dependent macrophage activation and a protective mechanism against Gram-negative bacteria. This study also highlights an unknown relationship between IFNγ-signaling, inflammatory caspases and mitophagy. Finally, our work point out the impact of pharmacological modulators of mitophagy on macrophage function and open new opportunities for the development of novel strategies to boost host defense

Monocyte recruitment promotes the accumulation of myeloid foam cells in early atherosclerotic plaques. However, initial foam cells form prior to increased monocyte recruitment in hypercholesterolemic Ldlr-/- mice. These initial foam cells are derived from myeloid cells residing in the normal intima, and express integrin alphaX (CD11c). The goal of this thesis was to assess the role of initial foam cells in atherogenesis. The approach was to delete these cells by diphtheria toxin-induced apoptosis in Ldlr-/- bone marrow chimeras. Depletion of CD11c+ leukocytes resulted in significant reductions of intimal lipid accumulation, monocyte recruitment, intimal chemokine expression, but not endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression, at 10 and 21 days of hypercholesterolemia. These data suggest that lipid uptake by resident intimal CD11c-expressing myeloid cells during the earliest stages of atherosclerosis promotes chemokine production that is required for increased monocyte recruitment.

Monocyte recruitment promotes the accumulation of myeloid foam cells in early atherosclerotic plaques. However, initial foam cells form prior to increased monocyte recruitment in hypercholesterolemic Ldlr-/- mice. These initial foam cells are derived from myeloid cells residing in the normal intima, and express integrin alphaX (CD11c). The goal of this thesis was to assess the role of initial foam cells in atherogenesis. The approach was to delete these cells by diphtheria toxin-induced apoptosis in Ldlr-/- bone marrow chimeras. Depletion of CD11c+ leukocytes resulted in significant reductions of intimal lipid accumulation, monocyte recruitment, intimal chemokine expression, but not endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression, at 10 and 21 days of hypercholesterolemia. These data suggest that lipid uptake by resident intimal CD11c-expressing myeloid cells during the earliest stages of atherosclerosis promotes chemokine production that is required for increased monocyte recruitment.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Karlstad : Karlstads universitet, 2008. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2007. / Title from first page of PDF file (viewed Oct. 13, 2008). Includes bibliographical references.

Les cellules de la lignée myéloïde jouent un rôle majeur dans la pathogénèse du VIH, servant à la fois de réservoir viral et permettant la transmission du virus aux cellules T. Cependant, ces cellules sont relativement résistantes à l’infection lentivirale par comparaison aux cellules provenant d’autres lignées. Des études provenant de divers laboratoires, dont le notre, ont montré que les étapes précoces de l’infection semblent se dérouler beaucoup moins efficacement dans ces cellules. Nous avons donc cherché à identifier des facteurs spécifiquement exprimés dans ces cellules pouvant être à l’origine de ce blocage. Ainsi, nous avons pu identifier APOBEC3A (A3A), un membre de la famille des APOBEC3s. A3A est spécifiquement exprimée dans les cellules de la lignée myéloïde mais n’était pas connue pour bloquer la réplication du VIH. Nous avons pu montrer que le pool d’A3A présent dans les cellules cibles est capable de cibler les particules entrantes d’une manière dépendante de son activité enzymatique. Sa déplétion, au moyen d’ARNs interférents, permet d’augmenter l’accumulation de l’ADN viral. Nos données suggèrent donc que A3A induit la dégradation des génomes viraux et que son activité antivirale est dirigée plus généralement contre les lentivirus de Primates. Cependant, la protéine Vpx des membres de la famille VIH-2/SIVSM permet de protéger contre l’action de A3A en induisant sa dégradation via le protéasome.Nous avons mis à jour un nouveau rôle de A3A lors de l’infection lentivirale des cellules myéloïdes. Ces données remettent en question le mode de fonctionnement des membres de la famille des APOBECS et ouvrent de nouvelles questions sur leurs modes d’action et leurs régulations dans les cellules primaires. / Myeloid cells are important for HIV pathogenesis both for viral transmission to T cells and as a viral reservoir. Nonetheless, these cells are quite restrictive to HIV infection compared to established cell lines or primary T cells. Studies from our group as well as other laboratories suggest thatthe early steps of infection are particularly inefficient in these cells . We tried to identify cellular factors specifically expressed in myeloid cells that could be responsible for this block. We identified APOBEC3A as one of such factors. A3A is a member of the APOBEC3 family and is the sole specifically expressed in myeloid cells. We showed that A3A blocks HIV incoming viral particles and more generally primates lentiviruses specifically in myeloid cells in a cytidine deaminase dependant manner. Our data suggest that A3A decreases viral DNA accumulation by inducing the degradation of newly synthesized genome most probably after deamination. Among the proteins coded by primate lentivirus, the HIV-2/SIVsm Vpx protein interacts and degrades A3A thus providing partial protection against A3A.Overall, our data reveal a novel role for A3A in the infection of myeloid cells and raises important questions about the regulation of the cell type specific antiviral role of A3A in primary myeloid cells.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a major public health concern, which contributes to serious hospital complications, chronic kidney disease (CKD) and even death. Renal ischemia- reperfusion injury (IRI) remains a leading cause of AKI.IRI combines major cell stress, significant burst of free radicals, and strong inflammatory responses leading to extensive cell injury, necrosis, and late interstitial fibrosis. Moreover, IRI- induced AKI releases pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6) that induce a systemic inflammatory response, resulting in pro-inflammatory cells recruitment and remote organ damage. AKI is associated with poor outcomes, particularly when extrarenal complications or distant organ injuries occur.The stress-responsive enzyme, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) mediates protection against renal IRI and may be preventively induced using hemin prior to renal insult. This HO-1 induction pathway called hemin preconditioning is largely known in the literature to be effective.We first confirmed that hemin-induced HO-1 improved renal outcomes after IRI (i.e. fewer renal damage, renal inflammation and oxidative stress). We then demonstrated that this protective pathway mitigated AKI-induced ALI, a major extrarenal complication after renal IRI, through modulation of systemic and lung inflammation.Afterwards, we focused on the specific contribution of myeloid HO-1 to renal IRI, which remains poorly characterized. We therefore investigated the contribution of myeloid HO-1 to renal IRI using mice with myeloid-restricted deletion of HO-1 (HO-1M-KO). We observed that myeloid HO-1 appeared to be a critical regulator of the earliest phases of IRI (i.e. higher plasma creatinine, tubular damage, and renal inflammation/oxidative stress in HO-1M-KO mice).As a link between the severity of renal injury and the risk maladaptive repair leading to CKD has been established, we thereby decided to focus on tubular repair and fibrosis deposition upon IRI. We identified that myeloid HO-1 prevented maladaptive repair and subsequent CKD through modulation of cell-cycle and autophagy regulatory proteins.We then showed that hemin-mediated protection requires specific expression of HO-1 within myeloid cells. We therefore identified CD11b+ F4/80lo macrophages as the main protective myeloid source of HO-1 upon renal IRI. Interestingly, we observed this myeloid cell sub- population in the kidney and spleen, suggesting that protective effects might be provided by both tissue-resident and infiltrating/circulating HO-1+ myeloid cells.Based on its promising cytoprotective effects when giving preemptively, we investigated the use of hemin-induced myeloid HO-1 as a strategy to mitigate established AKI. However, due to its chemical structure and oxidative properties, hemin worsened IRI-induced AKI. We thereby identified that hemin had a dual effect on renal IRI, protective or deleterious, depending on the timing of its administration.Altogether, this work suggests that myeloid HO-1 plays a critical role in the modulation of IRI- induced AKI by improving short- and long-term functional outcomes after renal IRI. We conclude that hemin-induced myeloid HO-1 pathway might be an efficient preventive strategy in many renal IRI situations with predictable AKI such as renal transplantation or partial nephrectomy. / Doctorat en Sciences médicales (Médecine) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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