Le polynucléaire neutrophile (PN) humain est une cellule phagocytaire qui constitue une des premières barrières de défense de l’organisme contre les agents pathogènes. Sa stimulation par des facteurs chimioattractants, provoque sa migration de la circulation sanguine vers le foyer inflammatoire. Dans le site inflammatoire, les PN reconnaissent l’agent pathogène par l'intermédiaire d'opsonines, des fractions résultant de l'activation du complément et par l’intermédiaire de motifs de reconnaissance conservés au cours de l’évolution des agents pathogènes qui se lient à des récepteurs de la famille Toll (Toll-like receptors ; TLR). Le contact du pathogène avec le PN va provoquer sa phagocytose et sa destruction par la libération de molécules contenues dans les granules du PN et par la production de formes réactives de l’oxygène (FRO) par un complexe enzymatique la NADPH phagocytaire composée au repos de de protéines cytosoliques (p40phox, p47phox, p67phox et Rac 2) et membranaires (gp91phox et p22phox formant le cytochrome b558). Un des événements majeur de l’activation de la NADPH oxydase est la phosphorylation de certains composants cytosoliques comme la p47phox ou la p67phox ce qui conduit à la translocation de ces protéines vers le cytochrome b558 membranaire et permet d’activer l’enzyme pour la production de FRO. L’hyperactivation de cette enzyme ou son « priming » consiste en une pré-activation du PN par des agents dit « primants » tels que des cytokines (TNFα, GM-CSF, IL-1), des chimiokines comme l’IL-8, des molécules lipidiques (PAF et LTB4), ou encore des endotoxines bactériennes LPS, agoniste de TLR4. Les TLR sont des récepteurs exprimés à la surface de nombreuses cellules dont les cellules immunitaires ; ils détectent des motifs conservés au cours de l’évolution des agents pathogènes appelés PAMPs pour "pathogen-associated molecular patterns", des protéines modifiées reconnues comme étrangères, des lipides oxydés, des ligands endogènes. Quelques agonistes des TLR comme le LPS ont été décrits pour induire un priming de la production des FRO par les PN. D’autres ont été connus par leur pouvoir activateur de la NADPH oxydase des PN. Le CL097 (Imidazoquinoline : agoniste des TLR7/8) était l’agoniste des TLR induisant le plus fort effet de « priming » par les PN stimulés par le fMLP. Le CL097 induit la phosphorylation de la p47phox sur la sérine 345. Cette phosphorylation implique des MAPKinases ERK1/2 et de la p38MAPK. La phosphorylation de ce site induit le changement de conformation de la p47phox sous l’action d’une proline isomérase Pin1. Ce changement de conformation favorise la phosphorylation des autres sites (Ser-315, Ser-328) et par conséquent l’activation de la NADPH oxydase. La comparaison de l’effet du CL097 à deux agonistes reconnaissant l’un le TLR7, l’autre le TLR 8 a montré que l’action du CL097 dépendait du TLR8. Le zymosan non opsonisé (agoniste de TLR2) stimule l’activation de la NADPH oxydase des neutrophiles. IL induit la phosphorylation de la p47phox au niveau des Ser-345, -315 et -328. Ces phosphorylations font intervenir respectivement les MAPK ERK1/2 et p38, une protéine tyrosine kinase et les PKC. En plus cet agoniste active la petite protéine cytosolique Rac2, nécessaire à l’activation de la NADPH oxydase des PN. Ces données permettraient d’identifier de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques de première importance afin de moduler les réponses inflammatoires pathologiques. / Superoxide anion production by the neutrophil NADPH oxidase plays a key role in host defense; however, excessive superoxide production is believed to participate to inflammatory reactions. Neutrophils express several TLR that recognize a variety of microbial motifs or agonists. The interaction between TLR and their agonists is believed to help neutrophils to recognize and to eliminate the pathogen. However, the effects of some TLR agonists on the NADPH oxidase activation and the mechanisms controlling these effects have not been elucidated. In this study, we show that the TLR7/8 agonist CL097 by itself did not induce NADPH oxidase activation in human neutrophils, but induced a dramatic increase of fMLF-stimulated activation. Interestingly, CL097 induced cytochrome b558 translocation to the plasma membrane and the phosphorylation of the NADPH oxidase cytosolic component p47phox on Ser345, Ser328 and Ser315. Phosphorylations of Ser328 and Ser315 were significantly increased in CL097-primed and fMLF-stimulated neutrophils. Phosphorylation of Ser345, Ser328 and Ser315 was decreased by inhibitors of p38MAPK and the ERK1/2-pathway. Phosphorylation of Ser328 was decreased by a PKC inhibitor. Genistein, a braod range protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor, inhibited the phosphorylation of these serines. Our results also show that CL097 induced proline isomerase (Pin1) activation and that juglone, a Pin1 inhibitor, inhibited CL097-mediated priming of fMLF-induced p47phox phosphorylation and superoxide production. These results show that activation of TLR7/8 in human neutrophils induces hyper-activation of the NADPH oxidase by stimulating the phosphorylation of p47phox on selective sites, and suggest that p38MAPK, ERK1/2, PKC and Pin1 control this process.Zymosan a cell-wall preparation from saccharomyces cerevisiae is largely used to activate neutrophils in its opsonized form. In this study, we show that non-opsonized zymosan induced ROS production by human neutrophils. Interestingly, zymosan induced the phosphorylation of the NADPH oxidase cytosolic component p47phox on Ser345, Ser328 and Ser315; and activation of the GTPase Rac2. Phosphorylation of p47phox as well as Rac2 activation were inhibited by genistein a broad range protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Wortmannin a PI3Kinase inhibitor, inhibited phosphorylation of p47phox on Ser328 and Ser315 and Rac2 activation. SB203580 and UO126, inhibitors of p38MAPK and ERK1/2-pathway respectively, inhibited phosphorylation of p47phox on Ser345. GF109203X a PKC inhibitor inhibited phosphorylation on Ser328 and Ser315. Zymosan-induced ROS production was inhibited by genistein, wortmannin, SB203580, UO126 and GF109203X. These results show that zymosan induced ROS production by NADPH oxidase in human neutrophils via the phosphorylation of p47phox and Rac2 activation. Our results also suggest that a protein tyrosine kinase and PI3Kinase control p47phox phosphorylation and Rac2 activation while p38MAPK, ERK1/2 and PKC are involved in zymosan-induced p47phox phosphorylation.

La production d’anion superoxyde (O2-) par le complexe NADPH oxydase 2 (NOX2) du polynucléaire neutrophile (explosion oxydative, EO) contribue à l’élimination d’agents pathogènes. Cette fonction de défense est stimulée par divers agents pro-inflammatoires, notamment par des peptides bactériens (fMLP), qui déclenchent une cascade de signalisation impliquant différentes protéines kinases (PKC, AKT, MAP-Kinases) et aboutissant à l’activation de la NOX2 (également nommée gp91phox), le coeur catalytique du complexe. Dans cette thèse, j’ai identifié la protéine kinase mTOR comme un nouvel effecteur majeur de l’EO dans les neutrophiles sains et j’ai comparé son mode d’action transductionnel dans les neutrophiles de patients ayant une cirrhose alcoolique décompensée en vue de comprendre leur grande susceptibilité aux infections bactériennes.Une contribution majeure de mTOR dans la production d’O2- induite par le fMLP a pu être démontrée à l’aide de son antagoniste spécifique, le médicament Rapamycine et par une approche antisense. mTOR agit en amont de la p38-MAPK qui phosphoryle la p47phox, un composant majeur du complexe NADPH oxydase. Dans les neutrophiles de patients cirrhotiques, l’EO est fortement défaillante, associée à un défaut d’activation de la voie p38-MAPK/p47phox(S345). Ce déficit d’EO est aggravé par la Rapamycine. Les neutrophiles de patients cirrhotiques présentent également un déficit d’expression de la gp91phox (NOX2), p22phox, p47phox et mTOR. Un déficit d’expression de la NOX2 a pu être reproduit en traitant les neutrophiles sains par le fMLP ou du plasma des patients. De plus, ce phénomène met en jeu une dégradation protéolytique insoupçonnée de la gp91phox impliquant l’élastase. Enfin, la déficience fonctionnelle des neutrophiles de patients a pu être corrigée dans des neutrophiles isolés et dans du sang total des patients cirrhotiques à l’aide d’un agoniste de récepteurs « Toll-like receptor (TLR) » qui agit en favorisant la transcription du gène de la gp91phox et sa synthèse protéique.En conclusion, mTOR émerge comme un nouvel effecteur transductionnel majeur de l’EO des neutrophiles, favorisant l’activation de la voie p47phox/gp91phox via les MAPK. Cette nouvelle voie de signalisation est fortement impactée au cours de la cirrhose alcoolique, ce qui favorise la susceptibilité des patients aux infections bactériennes. Bien que notre étude soulève ainsi des inquiétudes quant à l’utilisation d’inhibiteurs de mTOR chez les patients immunodéprimés, elle suscite par ailleurs la perspective de pouvoir corriger les déficits fonctionnels des neutrophiles à l’aide d’agents capables de stimuler des TLR intracellulaires. / Superoxide anion (O2-) production by NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2) complex of polymorphonuclear neutrophil (i.e respiratory burst, RB) contributes to efficient elimination of pathogens. This defense function is stimulated by various pro-inflammatory agents, especially by bacterial peptides (fMLP) which trigger a signaling cascade involving many protein kinases (PKC, AKT, MAP-Kinases) resulting in activation of NOX2, also called gp91phox, the catalytic core of the complex. In this thesis, I identified the protein kinase mTOR as a novel major RB effector of healthy neutrophils and I compared its transductional activity in neutrophils from patients suffering from alcoholic decompensated liver cirrhosis, aiming at understanding their high susceptibility to bacterial infections.A major contribution of mTOR to fMLP-induced neutrophil superoxide production was demonstrated using its specific drug antagonist Rapamycin, and by an antisens strategy. mTOR is activated upstream of p38-MAPK which phosphorylates p47phox, a major component of the NADPH oxidase complex. In neutrophils from cirrhotic patients, the RB is dramatically impaired and this was associated with a deficient activation of the p38-MAPK/p47phox(S345) signaling pathway. This RB deficiency was aggravated by Rapamycin. Neutrophils from cirrhotic patients also exhibited a deficient expression of gp91phox (NOX2), p22phox, p47phox and mTOR. A deficient NOX2 expression can be reproduced by treating healthy neutrophils with fMLP or plasma from cirrhotic patients. Furthermore, this phenomenon involved an unexpected proteolytic degradation of gp91phox mediated by elastase. Finally, this deficient superoxide production by neutrophil from cirrhotic patients can be corrected ex vivo in isolated neutrophils and in patients’ whole blood, using a Toll-like receptor agonist that acts by promoting the transcription and traduction of gp91phox .In conclusion, mTOR emerges as a novel and major signaling effector of neutrophil RB, promoting the activation of p47phox/gp91phox through MAPKs. This novel signaling pathway is strongly impaired during alcoholic liver cirrhosis, which increases patients’ susceptibility to bacterial infections. Although our study raises concerns about the use of mTOR inhibitors in immunocompromised patients, it also provides therapeutic propects for correcting neutrophil functional deficiencies using agents capable of stimulating intracellular TLR .

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Evidências têm mostrado que as espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) geradas pela NAD(P)H oxidase são importantes moduladores de diversas funções celulares como migração, crescimento, proliferação e sobrevivência. Estudos recentes demonstraram o envolvimento da atividade da NAD(P)H oxidase no crescimento e sobrevivência de células de melanoma. Neste trabalho, investigamos o efeito da inibição da NAD(P)H oxidase por difenileneiodônio (DPI) sobre o crescimento das células de melanoma humano MV3 e observamos que este composto reduziu o crescimento destas células em aproximadamente 50%. A inibição da NAD(P)H oxidase induziu mudanças no formato celular, com arredondamento, diminuição do espraiamento e descolamento celular. Esta redução foi acompanhada por um rearranjo do citoesqueleto de actina, diminuição da fosforilação no resíduo Tyr397 da quinase de adesão focal (FAK) e redução na associação de FAK com actina e com a tirosina quinase c-Src. Isto indica que a inibição da geração de ROS está modulando negativamente vias de sinalização ativadas por integrinas, o que freqüentemente conduz a um tipo particular de morte celular conhecida por anoikis. Comprovando a ocorrência deste fenômeno, observamos que a inibição da atividade da NAD(P)H oxidase aumentou a apoptose das células de melanoma e induziu a ativação da caspase-3. Nossos resultados mostram ainda que a inibição da viabilidade celular por DPI foi revertida com o pré-tratamento das células MV3 com um inibidor de tirosina fosfatases (ortovanadato de sódio). Em resumo, este estudo mostra que a geração de ROS por NAD(P)H oxidase está envolvida nos mecanismos de sobrevivência em células de melanoma, uma vez que afetam as vias de sinalização dependentes de FAK-Src, através da inibição da atividade de proteína tirosina fosfatases. / NAD(P)H oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) have emerged as critical mediators of several cell functions as diverse as migration, growth, proliferation and survival. Recent evidence has show that NAD(P)H oxidase activity is essential to melanoma proliferation and survival. We reported that NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) inhibited melanoma growth. NAD(P)H oxidase inhibition induced changes in cell shape with cell spreading decrease, rounding up and detachment. These phenomena were accompanied by rearrangement of actin network and a decrease in both focal adhesion (FAK) phosphorylation in Tyr397 residue and in FAK association to actin and c-Src, indicating that inhibition of ROS generation would down- modulate integrin-mediated signaling, what often results in a particular type of apoptotic cell death, known as anoikis. We observed that NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor induced apoptosis in melanoma cells with activation of caspase-3. We results show that the effects promoted by NAD(P)H oxidase inhibition on melanoma growth were completely abolished by the pre-treatment of MV3 cells with the protein tyrosine phosphatases inhibitor sodium orthovanadate. In conclusion, our results strongly suggest that ROS generated by NAD(P)H oxidase complex transmit cell survival signals in melanoma cells through the FAK-Src pathway, probably inhibiting protein tyrosine phosphatases.

A fotobiomodulação (PBM) utiliza a luz nas porções do espectro visível e infravermelho para estimular a produção de trifosfato de adenosina (ATP), síntese de ácidos nucleicos, geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) e proliferação celular, promovendo resultados teraupêuticos benéficos, como a aceleração do reparo tecidual, analgesia e ativação de células do sistema imune. Deste modo, a presente pesquisa visou elucidar os efeitos da PBM sobre monócitos humanos in vitro, a fim de possivelmente estimular o burst oxidativo e, consequentemente, potencializar a defesa imune celular contra micro-organismos, além de analisar a expressão gênica em nível de RNA mensageiro (mRNA) de CD68, CD80, CD163, CD204, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10 e SOD1 em macrófagos derivados destas células. Neste contexto, culturas primárias de monócitos humanos foram irradiadas com o laser de diodo InGaAlP (660nm)/ GaAlAs (780nm) - Twin Flex® (MMO, São Carlos, SP, Brasil), operando com potência de 40mW, área de feixe de 0,04cm2, densidade de potência de 1W/cm2 e doses independentes de 200J/cm2, 400J/cm2 e 600J/cm2. Após isto, as células foram submetidas ao ensaio de quimioluminescência para avaliação do burst oxidativo e quantificação da produção de ROS intracelulares e extracelulares. Ensaio da atividade microbicida foi realizado contra o fungo Candida albicans. Como controles positivo e negativo, utilizou-se o forbol 12-miristato 13-acetato (PMA) e o diphenyleneiodonium (DPI), respectivamente. A viabilidade celular foi verificada por meio do reagente azul de Trypan. Adicionalmente, os monócitos humanos irradiados foram cultivados por 72 horas, a fim de observar a diferenciação destas células em macrófagos mediante estímulos relacionados a macrófagos ativados pela via clássica (M1) (LPS e Candida albicans) e a macrófagos ativados pela via alternativa (M2) (M-CSF). O RNA total foi extraído de cada grupo experimental e submetido à transcrição reversa e PCR em tempo real. GAPDH foi utilizado como controle endógeno e a expressão relativa de cada gene foi calculada utilizando o método 2-ΔCt. A produção de nitrito (NO2) também foi mensurada através da reação de Griess. Os resultados obtidos foram analisados por ANOVA e teste de Tukey ao nível de significância de 5%. Para dados com variâncias desiguais, utilizou-se o Kruskal-Wallis e pós-teste de Newman-Keuls. Desta forma, os monócitos irradiados apresentaram um aumento significativo na produção de ROS intracelulares e extracelulares comparativamente ao grupo controle (P < 0,001), sendo o comprimento de onda de 660nm e a dose de 400J/cm2, os parâmetros que mais se destacaram (P < 0,001). Como consequência deste perfil funcional elevado dos monócitos irradiados, a capacidade fungicida dos mesmos contra Candida albicans mostrou-se bastante aumentada (P < 0,001). Além disso, observou-se que a PBM (660nm; 400J/cm2) não causou danos à viabilidade celular dos monócitos nos dias subsequentes à irradiação laser. A análise da expressão gênica revelou que a PBM (660nm; 400J/cm2) aumentou significativamente a expressão da citocina pró-inflamatória TNF-α pelos monócitos irradiados (P = 0,0302), aproximando-os de uma resposta imune Th1. Complementarmente, um aumento significativo na produção de NO2 pelos monócitos irradiados também foi observado (P < 0,05). Portanto, a PBM, como empregada neste estudo, foi capaz de aumentar a geração de ROS e NO2, intensificar a atividade microbicida contra Candida albicans e aumentar a expressão de TNF-α, sugerindo uma modulação da PBM na indução de agentes pró-inflamatórios relacionados ao perfil funcional de M1. Vislumbramos em um futuro próximo, a reprodução desses resultados em monócitos humanos in vivo, colaborando no tratamento de candidoses orais, por exemplo. / Photobiomodulation (PBM) comprises the use of light within the visible and infrared spectrum to stimulate the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), nucleic acid synthesis, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell proliferation, thus promoting beneficial therapeutical results, such as the acceleration of tissue repair, analgesia and activation of cells of the immune system. In that way, the present research aimed to elucidate the effects of PBM on human monocytes in vitro by possibly stimulating the oxidative burst of these cells and, consequently, enhancing the cellular immune defense against microorganisms, in addition to analyzing the gene expression at the messenger RNA (mRNA) level of CD68, CD80, CD163, CD204, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10 and SOD1 in macrophages derived from these cells. Thus, primary cultures of human monocytes were irradiated with an InGaAlP (660nm)/ GaAlAs (780nm) - Twin Flex® diode laser (MMO, São Carlos, SP, Brazil), operating with power of 40mW, beam area of 0.04cm2, power density of 1W/cm2 and independent doses of 200J/cm2, 400J/cm2 e 600J/cm2. Cells were then submitted to the chemiluminescence assay for oxidative burst evaluation and quantification of intracellular and extracellular ROS production. A microbicidal activity assay was performed against the fungus Candida albicans. As positive and negative controls, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) were used, respectively. Cell viability was verified by Trypan blue reagent. Besides, irradiated human monocytes were cultured for 72 hours in order to observe the differentiation of these cells into macrophages by stimuli related to macrophages activated by the classical pathway (M1) (LPS and Candida albicans) and macrophages activated by the alternative pathway (M2) (M-CSF). Total RNA was extracted from each experimental group and submitted to reverse transcription and real-time PCR. GAPDH was used as endogenous control and the relative expression of each gene was calculated using the 2-ΔCt method. The production of nitrite (NO2) was also measured by the Griess reaction. The results obtained were analyzed by ANOVA and Tukey's test at a significance level of 5%. For data with unequal variances, Kruskal-Wallis and Newman-Keuls post-test were used. In that way, irradiated monocytes presented a significant increase in intracellular and extracellular ROS production compared to the control group (P < 0.001). The wavelength of 660nm and the dose of 400J/cm2 were the most relevant parameters (P < 0.001). As a consequence of this high functional profile of the irradiated monocytes, the fungicidal capacity of the monocytes against Candida albicans was shown to be greatly increased (P < 0.001). In addition, it was observed that PBM (660nm; 400J/cm2) did not cause damage to the cell viability of monocytes in the days following laser irradiation. Analysis of the gene expression revealed that PBM (660nm; 400J/cm2) significantly increased the expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α by the irradiated monocytes (P = 0.0302), bringing them closer to a Th1 immune response. Additionally, a significant increase in NO2 production by irradiated monocytes was also observed (P < 0.05). Therefore, PBM, as employed in this study, was able to increase ROS and NO2 generation, enhance microbicidal activity against Candida albicans and increase TNF-α expression, suggesting a modulation of PBM in the induction of related pro-inflammatory agents to the functional profile of M1. We envisage in a near future, the reproduction of these results in human monocytes in vivo, which would collaborate to the treatment of oral candidoses, for example. / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES

Nox1 is of considerable importance because of its involvement in a wide variety of pathologies. Activation of Nox1 induces generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell migration, events critical for the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease, amyotropic lateral sclerosis, gastrointestinal disease, immunological disorders, and multiple forms of cancer [1-8]. In order to best determine how to treat Nox1-mediated disease, we must gain a better understanding of the mechanisms that control Nox1 activation. Within the last decade, many studies have found that protein phosphorylation and protein trafficking are critical regulatory mechanisms that control the activation of multiple Nox proteins. Yet, to date, no studies have characterized Nox1 phosphorylation or trafficking. We hypothesized that the activity of Nox1 is controlled by its phosphorylation at specific residues and by its sub-cellular localization; and that modifying Nox1 phosphorylation or localization will alter Nox1-dependent signaling. To test this hypothesis, we utilized both in vivo and in vitro approaches. We found that phosphorylation of Nox1 is significantly increased under pathological conditions in three in vivo models: (1) in atherosclerotic vs. normal aorta from monkey, (2) in neointimal vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) vs. medial VSMCs from rat following aortic balloon injury, and (3) in ligated vs. normal carotid from mouse. Studies using mass spectroscopy, pharmacological inhibition, siRNA, and in vitro phosphorylation identify PKC-βI as a kinase that mediates Nox1 phosphorylation and subsequent ROS production and VSMC migration. Site-directed mutagenesis of predicted Nox1 phospho-residues revealed that cells expressing mutant Nox1 T429A have a significant decrease in TNF-α-stimulated ROS production, VSMC migration and Nox1 NADPH oxidase complex assembly compared to cells expressing wild-type Nox1. Isothermal calorimetry (ITC) revealed that a peptide containing the Activation Domain of NoxA1 (LEPMDFLGKAKVV) binds to phosphorylated Nox1 peptide (KLK-phos-T(429)- QKIYF) but not non-phosphorylated Nox1 peptide. These findings indicate that phosphorylation of Nox1 residue T429 by PKC-βI promotes TNF-α-induced Nox1 NADPH oxidase complex assembly, ROS production, and VSMC migration. Nox1 localization and trafficking studies reveal that Nox1 endocytosis is necessary for TNF-α-induced Nox1 ROS production; and that mutation of a Nox1 VLV motif inhibits Nox1 endocytosis and ROS production. These studies have provided new evidence that phosphorylation and sub-cellular localization are involved in the regulation of Nox1 ROS production and cell migration and offer new insights as to how Nox1 activity can be targeted for the purpose of treating Nox1-mediated diseases.

Development of an in vitro model for the early stages of cardiovascular disease is a current necessity. Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States and throughout the world. Oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species have been implicated in cardiovascular disease development. An in vitro model of these processes will improve our understanding of cardiovascular disease development and allow for the development of additional treatments. Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease and increased levels of H2O2 are associated with inflammation. The model focuses on H2O2-induced oxidative stress under static and shear conditions. Previous studies have documented increased O2.- and increased cytotoxicity in smooth muscle cells exposed to H2O2. Under static culture, endothelial cells exposed to H2O2, exhibited increased O2.- over basal levels via NOS and NAPDH oxidase pathways. Increased O2.- was attenuated by MnSOD adenoviral-mediated upregulation and endothelial cell exposure to Tiron. This suggests NOS and NADPH oxidase as sources of increased O2.- under H2O2-induced oxidative stress. Endothelial cell cytotoxicity was increased with H2O2 exposure. The increase in cytotoxicity was diminished upon exposure to Tiron or L-NAME. Under shear conditions (8.2 dynes/cm2), endothelial cells exposed to H2O2 exhibited increased O2.- compared to control via an L-NAME (specific inhibitor NOS) and Apocynin (NADPH oxidase inhibitor) inhibitable mechanism. This suggests NOS and NADPH oxidase as sources of increased O2.- under H2O2-induced oxidative stress. The increased O2.- was attenuated with MnSOD adenoviral-mediated upregulation and endothelial cell exposure to Tiron (an O2.-scavenger). Endothelial cell attachment under shear with exposure to H2O2 was improved with MnSOD adenoviral-mediated upregulation as observed by decreased loss of the endothelial cell monolayer compared with H2O2 exposed endothelial cells. Endothelial cells exposed to H2O2 exhibit increased O2.-, suggesting that H2O2-induced oxidative stress may be a reasonable model for atherosclerosis. NOS and NADPH oxidase co-inhibition under shear and static culture demonstrated that NOS and NADPH oxidase inhibition is non-additive under static culture, yet additive under shear. Co-inhibition results suggest a complex relationship between the two enzymes that requires additional experimentation to deconvolve.

Das Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosteron-System (RAAS) reguliert den Blutdruck sowie den Elektrolyt- und Wasserhaushalt. Das aktive Peptid, Angiotensin II (AngII), führt dabei zur Vasokonstriktion und in höheren Konzentrationen zu Bluthochdruck. Hypertensive Patienten haben ein erhöhtes Risiko an Krebs zu erkranken, vor allem an Nierenkrebs. Wir konnten bereits in vivo zeigen, dass AngII in der Lage ist, den Blutdruck zu steigern und dosisabhängig zu DNA-Schäden über den Angiotensin II Typ 1-Rezeptor (AT1R) führt. Ein stimuliertes RAAS kann ferner über die Aktivierung der NADPH-Oxidase, einer Hauptquelle der Generierung reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) in der Zelle, zu oxidativem Stress führen. Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit war es zum einen, mit Hilfe von AT1a-Rezeptor-defizienten Mäusen in vivo zu prüfen, ob die Bildung von ROS, sowie die Bildung von DNA-Schäden in der Niere und im Herzen unabhängig von einem erhöhten Blutdruck auftreten. Zum anderen sollte, ebenfalls in vivo, untersucht werden, ob eine oder beide von zwei untersuchten Isoformen der NADPH-Oxidase (Nox) für die Auslösung oxidativen Stresses in der Niere verantwortlich ist. Zunächst wurden für den Versuch zur Überprüfung der Abhängigkeit AngII-induzierter DNA-Schäden vom Blutdruck männliche C57BL/6-Mäuse und AT1a-Knockout (KO)-Mäuse mit osmotischen Minipumpen ausgestattet, die AngII in einer Konzentrationen von 600 ng/kg min über einen Zeitraum von 28 Tagen abgaben. Zusätzlich wurde eine Gruppe von AngII-behandelten Wildtyp (WT)-Mäusen mit dem AT1-Rezeptor-Blocker Candesartan (Cand) behandelt. Während des Versuchszeitraumes fanden regelmäßige, nicht-invasive Blutdruckmessungen an den wachen Mäusen statt. In WT-Mäusen induzierte AngII Bluthochdruck, verursachte erhöhte Albumin-Level im Urin und führte zur Bildung von ROS in Niere und im Herzen. Außerdem traten in dieser Gruppe DNA-Schäden in Form von Einzel- und Doppelstrangbrüchen auf. All diese Reaktionen auf AngII konnten jedoch durch gleichzeitige Behandlung mit Cand verhindert werden. AT1a-KO-Mäuse hatten, verglichen mit WT-Kontrollmäusen, einen signifikant niedrigeren Blutdruck und normale Albumin-Level im Urin. In AT1a-KO-Mäusen, die mit AngII behandelt wurden, konnte kein Anstieg des systolischen Blutdrucks sowie kein Einfluss auf die Nierenfunktion gefunden werden. Jedoch führte AngII in dieser Gruppe zu einer Steigerung von ROS in der Niere und im Herzen. Zusätzlich wurden genomische Schäden, vor allem in Form von Doppelstrangbrüchen signifikant in dieser Gruppe induziert. Auch wenn AT1a-KO-Tiere, unabhängig von einer AngII-Infusion, keine eingeschränkte Nierenfunktion zeigten, so wiesen sie erhebliche histopathologische Schäden im Hinblick auf die Glomeruli und das Tubulussystem auf. Diese Art von Schäden deuten auf eine besondere Bedeutung des AT1aR im Hinblick auf die embryonale Entwicklung der Niere hin. Zusammenfassend beweisen die Ergebnisse dieses Experiments eindeutig, dass eine AngII-induzierte ROS-Produktion und die Induktion von DNA-Schäden unabhängig von einem erhöhten Blutdruck auftreten. Da in der AngII-behandelten AT1a-KO-Gruppe eine signifikant höhere Expression des AT1b-Rezeptors zu finden war und die Blockade von beiden Rezeptorsubtypen mit Cand zu einer Verhinderung der schädlichen Effekte durch AngII führte, scheint der AT1bR im Falle einer AT1aR-Defizienz für die Entstehung der Schäden zuständig zu sein. Ziel des zweiten Experimentes war es, den Beitrag der Nox2 und Nox4 zum oxidativen DNA-Schaden in vivo zu untersuchen. Hierfür wurden männliche C57BL/6-Mäuse und Nox2- oder Nox4-defiziente Mäuse mit osmotischen Minipumpen ausgestattet, die AngII in einer Konzentration von 600 ng/kg min über einen Zeitraum von 28 Tagen abgaben. Im WT-Stamm und in beiden Nox-defizienten Stämmen induzierte AngII Bluthochdruck, verursachte erhöhte Albumin-Level im Urin und führte zur Bildung von ROS in der Niere. Außerdem waren in allen AngII-behandelten Gruppen genomische Schäden, vor allem in Form von Doppelstrangbrüchen, erhöht. Auch in Abwesenheit von AngII wiesen Nox2- und Nox4-defiziente Mäuse mehr Doppelstrangbrüche im Vergleich zu WT-Kontrollmäusen auf. Interessanterweise kompensieren allerdings weder Nox2 noch Nox4 das Fehlen der jeweils anderen Isoform auf RNA-Basis. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse schließen wir, dass bislang keine Isoform alleine für die Generierung von oxidativen DNA-Schäden in der Niere verantwortlich gemacht werden kann und dass eine Beteiligung einer weiteren Nox-Isoform sehr wahrscheinlich ist. Möglicherweise könnten aber auch andere ROS-generierende Enzyme, wie Xanthinoxidase oder Stickoxidsynthase involviert sein. Da genomische Schäden in Nieren von Nox2- und Nox4-defizienten Mäusen in Abwesenheit von AngII gegenüber den Schäden in WT-Kontrollmäusen erhöht waren, könnten die beiden Isoformen auch eine schützende Funktion im Bereich von Nierenkrankheiten übernehmen. Da dies aber bislang nur für Nox4 beschrieben ist, ist es wahrscheinlicher, dass das Fehlen von einer der beiden Isoformen eher einen Einfluss auf die Embryonalentwicklung hat. Um dies jedoch abschließend zu klären wäre es sinnvoll mit induzierbaren Knockout-Modellen zu arbeiten, bei denen mögliche entwicklungsbedingte Effekte minimiert werden können. / The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) regulates blood pressure, electrolyte metabolism and water balance. The reactive peptide, Angiotensin II (AngII), of the RAAS causes vasoconstriction and, in higher concentrations, increased blood pressure. Hypertensive patients have an increased risk to develop cancer, especially kidney cancer. We have shown in vivo, that AngII is capable to cause an elevation of blood pressure, as well as DNA damage dose-dependently via the AngII type 1 receptor (AT1R). A stimulated RAAS can further lead to oxidative stress by activating NADPH oxidases which are major enzymatic sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cell. On the one hand the aim of this work was to examine in vivo with the help of AT1aR-deficient mice whether the formation of ROS and DNA damage in the kidney and the heart occur independently of an increased blood pressure. On the other hand we wanted to investigate whether one or both of the two examined isoforms of the NADPH oxidase (Nox) is responsible for the triggering of oxidative stress in the kidney. For the purpose of the first experiment which examined the dependency of AngII-induced DNA damage on blood pressure, male C57BL/6-mice and AT1a-knockout (KO)-mice were equipped with osmotic minipumps, delivering AngII in a concentration of 600 ng/kg x min during 28 days. Additionally, wild-type (WT) mice were treated with the AT1R antagonist candesartan (cand). Over the whole time period, frequent non-invasive blood pressure measurements were taken. In WT mice, AngII induced hypertension, an elevated urinary albumin level and formation of ROS in kidney and heart. Furthermore, genomic damage, in form of single- and double strand breaks, was augmented in this group. All these responses to AngII could be attenuated by concurrent administration of candesartan. AT1a-deficient mice had lower basal systolic pressures than WT mice and comparable urinary albumin levels. In AT1a-deficient mice treated with AngII, systolic pressure was not increased, and no effect on renal function could be detected. However, AngII led to an increase of ROS in kidney and heart in this group. In addition, genomic damage, especially in form of double strand breaks was significantly induced. Although AT1a-KO-mice, independent of an AngII-infusion, showed no renal impairment they had significant histopathological changes in glomeruli and tubules. This points to a special importance of AT1aR with regard to the embryonic development of the kidney. In summary our results clearly demonstrate that AngII-induced ROS production and DNA damage is independent of blood pressure. Since we found a significantly higher expression of the AT1bR in the AngII-treated AT1aR-KO-group and since blocking of both subtypes with cand resulted in a complete prevention of adverse AngII effects, the receptor responsible for the mediation of these effects seems to be AT1bR. The aim of the second experiment was to examine the contribution of Nox2 and Nox4 to oxidative DNA damage in vivo. Therefore male C57BL/6-mice and Nox2- or Nox4-deficient mice were equipped with osmotic minipumps, delivering AngII in a concentration of 600 ng/kg × min during 28 days. In WT and in both strains of Nox-deficient mice, AngII induced hypertension, elevated urinary albumin levels and formation of ROS in the kidney. Furthermore, genomic damage, especially in form of double strand breaks were augmented in all of the AngII-treated groups. Also in the absence of AngII, Nox2- and Nox4-deficient mice exhibited a higher background of double strand breaks. Interestingly neither Nox2 nor Nox4 do not compensate for the deficiency of the other isoform on mRNA level. Due to these results we conclude that there is no isoform so far which is solely responsible for the generation of ROS in the kidney under AngII-treatment. Potentially there might also be a contribution of other enzymes like xanthine oxidase or nitric oxide synthase to the formation of ROS. Since genomic damage in kidneys of Nox2- and Nox4-deficient mice in the absence of AngII was higher as compared to the damages in WT control mice it might be that both isoforms could have a protective role in renal disease. But, since this is so far only described for Nox4 it is likely that the absence of one of the two isoforms rather has an influence on the embryonic development. To finally clarify this hypothesis it would be suggestive to work with inducible knockout mouse models where possible developmental effects can be minimized.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Virginia Commonwealth University, 2009. / Prepared for: Dept. of Physiology. Title from resource description page. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (doctoral)--Universität, Leipzig, 1999.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are a major component of the immune suppressive network that develops during cancer. MDSC down-regulate immune surveillance and antitumor immunity and facilitate tumor growth. The ability of MDSC to suppress T cell responses has been documented; however the mechanisms regulating this suppression remain to be understood. This work proposes a biological dichotomy of MDSC regulated by the tumor microenvironment. In peripheral lymphoid organs MDSC cause T-cell non-responsiveness that is antigen-specific. These MDSC have increased expression of NOX2, enabling them to produce large amounts of reactive oxygen species. Since the transcription factor STAT3 is substantially activated in MDSC, its potential role in upregulation of NOX2 expression was investigated. Over-expression of a constitutively active form of STAT3 increases expression of NOX2 subunits, whereas attenuation of STAT3 activity leads to decreased expression of NOX2. The significance of NOX2 in ROS generation is demonstrated in mice devoid of NOX2 function; NOX2- deficient MDSC are unable to inhibit antigen-induced activation of T cells. In contrast, MDSC within the tumor microenvironment have a diminished potential to generate ROS but acquire expression of arginase and inducible nitric oxide synthase, enzymes plicated in T cell non-responsiveness. Upregulation of these enzymes results in MDSC ability to inhibit lymphocyte response in absence of antigen presentation. The tumor microenvironment also promotes the differentiation of MDSC to tumor associated macrophages. Hypoxia is an exclusive feature to the tumor microenvironment and we investigated its involvement in the properties of MDSC at the tumor site. Exposure of spleen MDSC to hypoxia converts MDSC to non-specific suppressors and induces a preferential differentiation to macrophages. Stabilization of HIF-1!, a transcription factor activated by hypoxia, induces similar changes in MDCS as hypoxic exposure. Finally, ablation of HIF-1! prevents MDSC from acquiring factors that enable the suppression of T cells in absence of antigen. These findings help to expand our understanding of the biology of MDSC and suggest a regulatory pathway of myeloid cell function exclusive to the tumor microenvironment. They may also open new opportunities for therapeutic regulation as we now should take into consideration how systemic location affects the function of MDSC.