The O’Brien lab has demonstrated that Heat shock protein 27 (HSP27)shows attenuated expression in human coronary arteries as the degree of atherosclerosis progresses. Moreover, over-expression of HSP27 reduces atherogenesis in mice. The precise mechanism(s) for HSP27-mediated "atheroprotection" are incompletely understood. Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-κB) is a key signaling modulator in atherogenesis. Hence, this project sought to determine if recombinant HSP27 (rHSP27) alters NF-κB signaling to affect atheroprotection. Treatment of THP1 macrophages with rHSP27 resulted in degradation of IκBα, coincided with nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit and produced transcriptional evidence of activation of NF-κB signaling. When the transcriptional profile of THP1 macrophages treated with rHSP27 was analyzed using NF-κB-pathway-specific qRT-PCR arrays, among the regulated genes, IL-10 and GM-CSF mRNA levels were markedly increased, as were parallel translational effects observed. These data provide new mechanistic insights into the atheroprotective effects of HSP27.

Prostate cancer is the most common invasive cancer diagnosed in men and a major and growing health problem in Western countries. Deregulation of different pathways has been implicated in progression of prostate cancer, namely nuclear factor kappa enhancer binding protein (NF-κB), transforming growth factor β (TGFβ), phosphoinositide 3ʹ-kinase/AKT (PI3K/AKT) and Src kinase pathways. However, the detailed mechanisms by which TGFβ activates these pathways to contribute in tumorigenesis and invasive behavior of prostate cancer cells have not been elucidated. We have demonstrated (paper I) that the E3 ligase activity of TRAF6 is crucial for recruitment of the regulatory subunit of PI3K, p85α, to TβRI and for TGFβ-induced Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of p85α. TRAF6 is required for the TGFβ-induced recruitment of AKT to the complex of PI3K and TβRI, where the polyubiquitination and activation of AKT occurs. When activated, AKT promotes TGFβ-induced cell migration which is dependent on p85 and PI3K activity, as well as on TRAF6, but not on TβRI kinase activity. Thus, TGFβ-induced activation of PI3K/AKT induces cell motility contributing to the progression of cancer. We have demonstrated (paper II) a pivotal role of TAK1 polyubiquitination in three different pathways, including TNFR, IL-1R, and TLR4 signaling. Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of TAK1 at Lys34 is essential for downstream signaling to NF-κB-mediated target gene expression in both cancer and immune cells. These findings are of importance for the understanding of the mechanism of activation of NF-κB in inflammation and may aid in the development of new therapeutic strategies to treat chronic inflammation and cancer. We have also shown (paper III) that TGFβ activates the tyrosine kinase Src via formation of a complex between TβRI and Src. The E3 ligase TRAF6 promotes the formation of the complex in a manner not dependent on its ubiquitin ligase activity, suggesting that TRAF6 acts as an adaptor. Moreover, the activation of Src is not dependent on the kinase activity of TβRI. On a functional level, Src activity was found to be necessary for TGFβ-induced chemotaxis. In conclusion, we have elucidated molecular mechanisms whereby TGFβ activates non-Smad pathways, i.e. PI3K and Src. Our findings shed light on the pro-tumorigenesis mechanisms of TGFβ. In addition, we have demonstrated how the activation of TAK1, an important component of the TGFβ non-Smad pathway, by TGFβ and other stimuli leads to the activation of NF-κB and thereby induction of inflammation which likely contributes to prostate cancer progression.

Τα καρκινώματα του λάρυγγα και του λαρυγγοφάρυγγα αποτελούν τη συχνότερη κακοήθη νεοπλασία Κεφαλής & Τραχήλου. Οι προκαρκινικές βλάβες είναι ενδιάμεσοι σταθμοί της καρκινογένεσης, που καταλήγει στον καρκίνο. Παράλληλα με την καρκινογένεση συμβαίνει ενεργοποίηση κυττάρων του υποεπιθηλιακού στρώματος. Η χημειοπρόληψη είναι απόπειρα φαρμακολογικής ανακοπής της καρκινογένεσης. Ο πυρηνικός υποδοχέας PPARγ καταλήγει σε διαφοροποίηση αρκετών κυττάρων. Ο RXRα ετεροδιμερίζεται με τον PPARγ και άλλους πυρηνικούς υποδοχείς. Ο μεταγραφικός παράγοντας NF-κB ενισχύει την κυτταρική επιβίωση και φλεγμονή. Ο μεμβρανικός υποδοχέας EGFR κινητοποιεί μιτογόνες διαδικασίες. Η COX-2 συνθέτει προσταγλανδίνες. Κατά την παρούσα εργασία, μελετήθηκε με ανοσοϊστοχημεία σε τομές παραφίνης η έκφραση των πέντε μορίων στο φυσιολογικό λαρυγγικό επιθήλιο, προκαρκινικές βλάβες και καρκινώματα διαφόρων Grade, καθώς και το υποκείμενο στρώμα, σε ιστικά δείγματα λάρυγγα από 127 ασθενείς. Από τους PPARγ, NF-κB(υπομονάδα p65) και RXRα, που εμφάνισαν μεικτή υποκυττάρια εντόπιση, οι δύο πρώτοι αναγνωρίστηκαν κυρίως στο κυτταρόπλασμα και ο τρίτος στον πυρήνα. Οι EGFR και COX-2 παρουσίασαν μεμβρανική και κυτταροπλασματική ανοσοδραστικότητα αντίστοιχα. Η έκφραση του υποδοχέα PPARγ συσχετίστηκε θετικά με την καλή διαφοροποίηση των όγκων. Ο RXRα ελαττώθηκε κατά την καρκινογένεση. Τα επίπεδα των παραγόντων NF-κB, EGFR και COX-2 παρουσίασαν αύξηση στην καρκινογένεση. Η COX-2 συσχετίστηκε αρνητικά με το Grade των όγκων. Στις υπόλοιπες συσχετίσεις μελετήθηκε η συνέκφραση των παραγόντων σε κάθε ασθενή. Παρατηρήθηκε στο φυσιολογικό και προνεοπλασματικό επιθήλιο, θετική σχέση της COX-2 με τους υπόλοιπους παράγοντες. Επιβεβαιώθηκε η συνέργεια των PPARγ & RXRα, ως προς την πρόκληση διαφοροποίησης στα καρκινικά κύτταρα. Διαπιστώθηκε κατασταλτική επίδραση του PPARγ στην καρκινογόνο δράση του NF-κB. Αποκαλύφθηκε συνεργιστική δράση της COX-2 στην PPARγ-εξαρτώμενη διαφοροποίηση, οφειλόμενη πιθανόν σε προσφορά της 15d-PGJ2, από το ένζυμο στον πυρηνικό υποδοχέα. Κατά την εκτίμηση του μικροπεριβάλλοντος, αξιολογήθηκε η έκφραση σε συνάρτηση με την ύπαρξη καρκινώματος και το βαθμό διαφοροποίησής του. Οι μυοϊνοβλάστες που περιβάλλουν καρκινώματα (CAFs), παρουσιάζουν επαγωγή των RXRα, NF-κB και COX-2. Μάλιστα η υψηλή έκφραση COX-2 στους CAFs, συνδυάζεται με υψηλό Grade. Ενεργοποίηση στους CAFs, συνδέεται με υπερ-δραστήρια NF-κB σηματοδότηση στο καρκίνωμα. Ο NF-κB υπερεκφράζεται στα λεμφοκύτταρα που διηθούν τους όγκους (TILs). Επίσης τα μακροφάγα γύρω από νεοπλάσματα (TAMs), περιέχουν υψηλό PPARγ. Η χρήση αγωνιστών των PPARγ, RXRα, με παράλληλη αναστολή των NF-κB, EGFR και COX-2, θα είχε πιθανότατα ευνοϊκό αποτέλεσμα στην αναστροφή της λαρυγγικής καρκινογένεσης. Το χημειοπροληπτικό σχήμα, θα ήταν ωφέλιμο να τροποποιείται ύστερα από εξατομικευμένη αξιολόγηση του δικτύου των πέντε παραγόντων. / Carcinomas of the larynx and laryngopharynx are the most common malignancies of the Head&Neck. The precancerous lesions are mid-points of carcinogenesis, which results in cancer. Carcinogenesis is accompanied by reactive initiation of stromal cells. Chemoprevention pursues the arrest of carcinogenesis, by pharmacological means. PPARγ, a nuclear receptor, promotes cellular differentiation. The nuclear receptor RXRα partners with PPARγ or other members of the superfamily. The transcription factor NF-κB enhances cell survival and inflammation. The receptor EGFR receives growth signals. The enzyme COX-2 perpetuates inflammation by means of prostaglandin synthesis. The present study, utilizing paraffin section immunohistochemistry, assessed expression of the five molecules in normal laryngeal epithelium, precancerous lesions and carcinomas, along with their adjacent stroma. Clinical samples were derived from 127 patients who had undergone biopsy or laryngectomy. Of the three molecules demonstrating mixed subcellular presence, PPARγ and NF-κB(p65 subunit) localized more frequently in cytoplasm, whereas RXRα expression was mainly nuclear. EGFR and COX-2 staining patterns were membranous and cytoplasmic, respectively. PPARγ correlated with high tumor differentiation. RXRα was diminished in dysplasia and cancer. NF-κB, EGFR and COX-2, were upregulated as tumorigenesis progressed. COX-2 showed an inverse relationship with tumor Grade. The remaining correlations are based on coexpression analysis of the aforementioned factors. COX-2 was positively associated in normal and preneoplastic epithelia with the four regulating proteins. The data verify the synergistic effect of PPARγ and RXRα, regarding potentiation of neoplastic cell differentiation. Suppressive influence of PPARγ on NF-κB–mediated carcinogenesis was manifested. COX-2 overexpression was shown to reinforce the beneficial role of PPARγ in cell differentiation, probably due to production of the receptor agonist 15d-PGJ2. Subepithelial stroma was examined with regard to immunoreactivity in relation to the presence of invasion as well as to tumor Grade. Carcinoma Associated Myofibroblasts (CAFs), manifested upregulation of RXRα, NF-κB and COX-2, which mediate in concert angiogenesis, inflammation, and tumor spread. Intense COX-2 expression in CAFs, correlated with poor tumor differentiation. CAF activation was associated with intense NF-κB signalling in cancer cells. NF-κB was overexpressed in Tumor Infiltrating Lymphocytes (TILs). Finally, in Tumor Associated Macrophages (TAMs), PPARγ was induced. PPARγ, RXRα agonists, combined with NF-κB, EGFR and COX-2 inhibitors, would likely restrain laryngeal carcinogenesis. Subtle variations in the chemopreventive regimen, based on personalized molecular profiling, would hopefully achieve a patient-tailored therapeutic approach.

Der Transkriptionsfaktor NF-κB ist von großer Bedeutung, da er verschiedene zelluläre Prozesse wie Proliferation, Apoptose, Invasion oder Inflammation beeinflusst. Im Gegensatz zu den meisten anderen Zelltypen ist in der humanen Epidermis ein wachstumsinhibierender Effekt mit der Aktivierung von NF-ĸB assoziiert. Die epidermale Homöostase dient der Aufrechterhaltung der intakten Hautbarriere und beschreibt das Gleichgewicht zwischen proliferierenden und differenzierenden epidermalen Keratinozyten. Schädliche äußere Einflüsse wie übermäßige Sonnenlichtexposition können die epidermale Homöostase stören, was zur Entstehung epidermaler Neoplasien wie aktinischer Keratosen oder Plattenepithelkarzinomen beiträgt. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Expressions- und Funktionsanalyse der einzelnen NF-κB Proteinuntereinheiten in humanen Keratinozyten in vitro. Die siRNA-vermittelte transiente Reduktion von c-Rel beeinflusste deutlich das Zellschicksal von Keratinozyten. Obwohl vorangegangene Experimente durch eine stärkere Zellproliferation nach Inhibierung der NF-ĸB Proteine p50 und p65 das Gegenteil suggerierten, konnte für die Reduktion von c Rel ein inhibierender Effekt auf das Zellwachstum festgestellt werden. Außerdem zeigten sich eine veränderte Zellzyklusphasenverteilung sowie eine Akkumulation mitotischer Zellen mit aberranter, hauptsächlich monopolarer Spindelformation. Die zusätzlich detektierte Apoptose-Induktion könnte aus dem verlängerten mitotischen Arrest der c-Rel Knockdown Keratinozyten resultieren. Insgesamt lässt sich ein regulatorischer Effekt von c-Rel beim Eintritt in die Mitose oder der mitotischen Progression vermuten, wobei die beteiligten Zielgene noch zu identifizieren sind. Des Weiteren bewirkte der c-Rel Knockdown phänotypische Veränderung von HaCaT Keratinozyten mit tendenziell spindelzellartiger Elongation und einem insgesamt veränderten Wachstumsmuster. Die Adhäsion und besonders die Wundheilung von c-Rel reduzierten HaCaT Zellen war vermindert, möglicherweise bedingt durch ein reduziertes Stressfaservorkommen. Dieser Effekt zeigte sich allerdings nicht in c Rel herunter regulierten primären Keratinozyten, was auf Mutationen der spontan immortalisierten HaCaT Keratinozytenzelllinie zurückzuführen sein könnte. Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit ein neuer Aspekt der einzelnen NF-ĸB Proteine aufgezeigt werden, besonders in Bezug auf die Proteinuntereinheit c-Rel. Hieraus resultiert ein besseres Verständnis der vielfältigen und komplexen Regulation von NF-κB abhängigen Funktionen und deren Effekte auf die epidermale Homöostase.

This study investigated the association between flavonoid profiles of different cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata) varieties with anti-inflammatory properties as a possible benefit against inflammatory bowel disease. Cowpea, a drought tolerant annual herbaceous legume that originated in Africa, is known to possess high levels of polyphenolics, which have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory and antioxidant properties. Black, red, white, brown and light brown cowpeas were investigated for phenolic content and composition using UV-Visible Spectroscopy and HPLC; antioxidant activation mechanism (AOX) by oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC). Anti-inflammatory activity was measured via NF-κB activation in Raw 264.7 macrophages challenged with a lipo-polysaccharide. Phenols, tannins and AOX activity were generally similar within phenotypes; however among light brown varieties, 09FCV-CC-27M, had among the highest phenols, tannins and AOX, whereas IAR-48 had among the lowest. White cowpea (EARLY ACRE) variety showed the least amount of total phenol content (78.2 mg GAE/g) and condensed tannin content (4.1 mg CE/g); whereas the red varieties (IT82D-889, IT97K-1042-3) contained the highest amounts of tannins (242 and 132 mg CE/g), and phenols (431 and 454 mg GAE/g) respectively. Antioxidant activity correlated with phenol content data. Anthocyanins were only found in the black cowpea. The red varieties had the highest levels of flavonols, which were mostly quercetin derivatives; the white and light brown (IAR-48) varieties had quercetin-3-O-diglucoside as the dominantcompound. The light brown variety (09FCV-CC-27M) had the highest amount of flavan-3-ols while in the white variety no flavan-3-ols were detected. Unexpectedly, the cowpea extracts with lower phenolic and tannins content, the white and light brown (IAR-48) varieties, showed significant (p<0.05) anti-inflammatory properties in the LPS induced macrophages, inhibiting the activation of NF-κB at different concentrations (0.33, 1.67 and 3.33 μg extract/mL). Conversely, extracts with higher phenolic and tannin content did not induce anti-inflammatory response at similar concentrations, suggesting that tannins or other phenolics interfered with anti-inflammatory response at these concentrations. These results suggest that cowpea composition is an important determinant of anti-inflammatory response in inflammatory bowel disease.

L’ostéoarthrose (OA) est une maladie articulaire dont l’incidence augmente avec le vieillissement de la population. Elle se caractérise par une détérioration progressive du cartilage articulaire accompagnée du remodelage de l’os sous-chondral et du changement des tissus mous de l’articulation. La douleur et le dysfonctionnement de l’articulation affectée sont généralement attribués à l’inflammation et l’épanchement de la synovie. Plusieurs évidences indiquent que l’inflammation de la membrane synoviale contribue grandement à la pathogenèse de l’OA. En effet, la synthèse et l’expression des enzymes protéolytiques qui dégradent la matrice cartilagineuse sont régulées par de nombreuses cytokines retrouvées au sein de ce foyer inflammatoire. Deux d’entre elles, l’interleukine-1 beta (IL-1β) et le «tumor necrosis factor » alpha (TNF-α), jouent un rôle majeur dans le déclenchement de l’inflammation associée à l’OA. Ces cytokines pro-inflammatoires agissent notamment sur les synoviocytes et les chondrocytes en activant NF-κB qui, à son tour, active les gènes de cytokines. Cette boucle de régulation positive amplifie et perpétue la réponse inflammatoire. Récemment, il a été rapporté que l’activation de NF-κB par TNF-α peut être potentialisée par EXTL3, un récepteur transmembranaire ; mais le mécanisme sous-jacent de cet effet demeure inconnu. Toutefois, les niveaux important d’EXTL3 et de son ligand Reg1B chez les patients arthrosiques, laissent croire que ces protéines jouent un rôle dans le développement de l’OA. Notre objectif était d’étudier le mécanisme par lequel EXTL3 amplifie l’activation de NF-κB par TNF-α et d’examiner si ce phénomène se produit aussi avec l’IL-1β. Nous avons utilisé les cellules C28/I2, une lignée cellulaire de chondrocytes, comme modèle d’étude. Les transfections transitoires avec un vecteur d’expression, les techniques d’immunofluorescence (IF), d’immunoprécipitation (IP) et d’immunobuvardage de type Western (IB); ont été utilisées dans le cadre de diverses approches expérimentales. Les résultats obtenus par transfection ont révélé que la protéine EXTL3 potentialisait l’activation de NF-κB aussi bien par IL-1β que par TNF-α. Ce résultat signifie que la potentialisation de l’activité NF-κB par EXTL3 n’est pas spécifique à TNF-α. D’autre part, l’IP avec TNFRI et TRAF2 a révélé la présence d’EXTL3 dans le complexe TNF-α/TNFRI/TRAF2 qui se forme au niveau de la membrane plasmique. De plus, ceci a été confirmé in vivo par microscopie confocale montrant la co-localisation de TNFRI-TRAF2-EXTL3 dans la membrane nucléaire, suggérant ainsi la formation d’un complexe identique au niveau des membranes plasmique et nucléaires. Toutefois, la présence du ligand Reg1B et/ou de la glucosamine inhibait la formation de ce complexe au niveau de la membrane plasmique, tout comme ils abolissaient la potentialisation de l’activité NF-κB par EXTL3. Ces résultats suggèrent non seulement que le recrutement d’EXTL3 libre dans le complexe TNF-α/TNFR1 est requis pour amplifier l’activation de NF-κB par TNF-α, mais aussi la capacité du ligand Reg1B et de la glucosamine à moduler cette activation à travers la baisse ou l’inhibition de l’interaction EXTL3-TNFR1. Les données de cette étude constituent une avancée majeure dans la compréhension des événements moléculaires qui contrôlent l’activation de NF-κB par les cytokines pro-inflammatoires. Ces résultats pourraient conduire au développement de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques pour le traitement de l’inflammation associée à l’OA et impliquant une activation incessante de NF-κB. / Osteoarthritis (OA) is an articular disease with a particularly high incidence in the elderly. This disease is characterized by the progressive degeneration of the cartilage followed by subchondral bone remodelling and a change in the soft tissues of the joint. Local chronic pain and joint malfunction are generally attributed to the inflammation of the synovial membrane, which in itself has been shown to significantly contribute to the pathogenesis of OA. In fact, the synthesis and expression of many proteolytic enzymes which degrade cartilage matrix are regulated by numerous cytokines originating from these inflammation sites. Two pro-inflammatory cytokines, the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and the interleukine-1β (Il-1β), play a major role in triggering inflammation associated with OA. These cytokines act on synoviocytes and chondrocytes by activating the transcription factor NF-κB, which in turn activates the cytokines’ genes. This positive regulating loop amplifies and maintains inflammatory responses. Recently, studies have shown that the over-expression of the REG receptor/EXTL3, a transmembranous receptor, enhances the activity of cytokine TNF-α in the activation of NF-κB. Unfortunately the mechanism involved in this process is still unknown. In addition, levels of EXTL3 and its ligand REG1B observed in OA patients suggest their possible involvement in the development of OA. Our goal was to study and elucidated the mechanisms used by EXTL3 to amplify NF-κB activation by TNF-α, as well as to examine whether the same phenomenon is occurring with IL-β. A human chondrocytes cell line called C28/I2 as experimental model. The techniques used for the current study were transfection assays, immunoflorescence (IF), immunoprecipitation (IP), and Western blotting (WB). Our transfection data have shown that EXTL3 was able to enhance NF-κB activity induced by TNF-α as well as by IL-1β. This result suggests that the enhanced NF-κB activity by EXTL3 is not specific to TNF-α. The IP experiments with TNFR1 and TRAF2 revealed the presence of EXTL3 in TNF-α/TNFR1 complex which is formed in the plasma membrane. Also, IF assay in combination with confocal microscopy allowed us to detect TNFR1/TRAF2/EXTL3 co-localisation on the nuclear membrane, suggesting the formation of TNF-α/TNFR1 complex on both the nuclear and plasma membranes. Somehow, REG1B, an EXTL3 ligand, and glucosamine were able to inhibit the formation of this complex at the plasma membrane. They were also able to abolish NF-κB activity enhanced by EXTL3. These results suggest that not only EXTL3 recruitment in the TNF-α/TNFR1 complex is required to amplify NF-κB activation by TNF-α, but also that REG1B ligand and glucosamine have the ability to modulate this activation by reducing or inhibiting EXTL3 and TNFR1 interactions. This study’s data represents a major advance in the understanding of molecular events controlling NF-κB activation by pro-inflammatory cytokines. These results could lead to the development of new therapeutics targets, in the treatment of disorders associated to OA and involving recurrent activation of NF-κB.

Apoptotic cell death of cardiac myocytes plays an important pathological role after a myocardial infarction and during heart failure. Apoptotic myocytes are not regenerated because of the restricted ability of terminally differentiated cardiac myocytes to undergo cell division. Because ventricular function is directly related to the number of active muscle cells, the inappropriate loss or premature death of cardiac myocytes results in reduced cardiac performance. Bnip3 was previously identified by Dr. Lorrie Kirshenbaum’s laboratory as a critical mediator of hypoxia-induced apoptosis in the heart. Importantly, his lab established that the cytoprotective actions of NF-κB during hypoxia included the transcriptional repression of Bnip3. However, the mechanism by which NF-κB acted as a transcriptional repressor was undefined. The present work strongly supports the hypothesis that NF-κB-mediated inhibition of Bnip3 transcription is dependent on the recruitment of the corepressor protein HDAC1. Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that HDAC1 and p65 NF-κB formed protein-protein interactions. ChIP assays demonstrated that HDAC1 and p65 NF-κB associated with the Bnip3 promoter. HDAC1-mediated repression of Bnip3 was lost in cells deficient for p65 NF-κB, and restored upon repletion of p65. A second avenue of investigation described in this work demonstrated that the cell cycle factor E2F-1 directly activated Bnip3 transcription. Earlier work by Dr. Kirshenbaum found that adenovirus-mediated overexpression of E2F-1 in ventricular myocytes induced apoptosis. Herein, it is shown that E2F-1-mediated cell death is largely Bnip3-dependent because functional loss of Bnip3 inhibited E2F-1-induced cell death. Concerning hypoxia, Bnip3 expression is dependent upon the loss of p65/HDAC1-mediated repression, and on the presence of transcriptionally active E2F-1. During hypoxia, overexpression of p65, HDAC1, or Rb, an endogenous inhibitor of E2F-1-dependent transcription, attenuated hypoxia-induced Bnip3 transcription. Based on these findings, future therapies may be designed to repress Bnip3 gene expression after a myocardial infarction, thereby averting cardiac cell death and preserving cardiac function post-infarction.

Apoptotic cell death of cardiac myocytes plays an important pathological role after a myocardial infarction and during heart failure. Apoptotic myocytes are not regenerated because of the restricted ability of terminally differentiated cardiac myocytes to undergo cell division. Because ventricular function is directly related to the number of active muscle cells, the inappropriate loss or premature death of cardiac myocytes results in reduced cardiac performance. Bnip3 was previously identified by Dr. Lorrie Kirshenbaum’s laboratory as a critical mediator of hypoxia-induced apoptosis in the heart. Importantly, his lab established that the cytoprotective actions of NF-κB during hypoxia included the transcriptional repression of Bnip3. However, the mechanism by which NF-κB acted as a transcriptional repressor was undefined. The present work strongly supports the hypothesis that NF-κB-mediated inhibition of Bnip3 transcription is dependent on the recruitment of the corepressor protein HDAC1. Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that HDAC1 and p65 NF-κB formed protein-protein interactions. ChIP assays demonstrated that HDAC1 and p65 NF-κB associated with the Bnip3 promoter. HDAC1-mediated repression of Bnip3 was lost in cells deficient for p65 NF-κB, and restored upon repletion of p65. A second avenue of investigation described in this work demonstrated that the cell cycle factor E2F-1 directly activated Bnip3 transcription. Earlier work by Dr. Kirshenbaum found that adenovirus-mediated overexpression of E2F-1 in ventricular myocytes induced apoptosis. Herein, it is shown that E2F-1-mediated cell death is largely Bnip3-dependent because functional loss of Bnip3 inhibited E2F-1-induced cell death. Concerning hypoxia, Bnip3 expression is dependent upon the loss of p65/HDAC1-mediated repression, and on the presence of transcriptionally active E2F-1. During hypoxia, overexpression of p65, HDAC1, or Rb, an endogenous inhibitor of E2F-1-dependent transcription, attenuated hypoxia-induced Bnip3 transcription. Based on these findings, future therapies may be designed to repress Bnip3 gene expression after a myocardial infarction, thereby averting cardiac cell death and preserving cardiac function post-infarction.

The O’Brien lab has demonstrated that Heat shock protein 27 (HSP27)shows attenuated expression in human coronary arteries as the degree of atherosclerosis progresses. Moreover, over-expression of HSP27 reduces atherogenesis in mice. The precise mechanism(s) for HSP27-mediated "atheroprotection" are incompletely understood. Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-κB) is a key signaling modulator in atherogenesis. Hence, this project sought to determine if recombinant HSP27 (rHSP27) alters NF-κB signaling to affect atheroprotection. Treatment of THP1 macrophages with rHSP27 resulted in degradation of IκBα, coincided with nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit and produced transcriptional evidence of activation of NF-κB signaling. When the transcriptional profile of THP1 macrophages treated with rHSP27 was analyzed using NF-κB-pathway-specific qRT-PCR arrays, among the regulated genes, IL-10 and GM-CSF mRNA levels were markedly increased, as were parallel translational effects observed. These data provide new mechanistic insights into the atheroprotective effects of HSP27.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Orf virus (ORFV), the type member of the genus Parapoxvirus of the family Poxviridae, is the etiologic agent of orf or contagious ecthyma, a contagious and ubiquitous disease of sheep and goats. ORFV genome consists of a double stranded DNA molecule with approximately 138 Kb, and contains 131 putative genes. Among those, 15 are novel genes, unique to parapoxviruses, which lack homology to other known viral or cellular genes. In the present study we describe the functional characterization of three of these genes, ORFV024, ORFV002, and ORFV121. Results presented here demonstrate that the proteins encoded by these genes inhibit the activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway. ORFV-encoded ORFV024 inhibits activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway in the cell cytoplasm by inhibiting phosphorylation of the IκB kinases, IKKα and IKKβ, consequently inhibiting the activation of the IKK complex. Deletion of ORFV024 from the ORFV genome had no significant effect on disease severity, progression or time to resolution in sheep, indicating that ORFV024 does not contribute to ORFV virulence. ORFV-encoded ORFV002 functions in the cell nucleus, where it interacts with the NF-κB subunit NF-κB-p65, inhibiting its acetylation, a p300-mediated modification of NF-κB-p65 which modulates its transcriptional activity. Similarly to ORFV024, deletion of ORFV002 from the ORFV genome had no significant effect on ORFV virulence and disease pathogenesis in sheep. ORFV-encoded ORFV121 functions in the cell cytoplasm, where it binds to and inhibits phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB-p65. Deletion of ORFV121 from the ORFV genome resulted in a marked attenuated disease phenotype in sheep, indicating that ORFV121 is a determinant of virulence of ORFV in the natural host. These results indicate that ORFV, like other poxviruses, has evolved multiple strategies to modulate NF-κB, targeting different steps of the signaling pathway. Results obtained in the pathogenesis studies performed here suggest that multiple NF-κB inhibitors encoded by ORFV may exert complementary and/or redundant functions to effectively block host cell responses regulated by the NF-κB signaling pathway. Additionally, it is possible that ORFV-encoded NF-κB inhibitors modulate distinct cellular processes regulated by NF-κB in vivo. A better understanding of ORFV-host interactions may provide valuable insights for the development of improved vaccines against orf, or yet for the development of novel ORFV-based therapeutic agents and vaccine vectors with enhanced safety and efficacy, and a broader applicability. / O vírus da orf (ORFV), protótipo do gênero Parapoxvirus da família Poxviridae, é o agente etiológico da orf ou ectima contagioso, uma enfermidade contagiosa de distribuição mundial que afeta primariamente ovinos e caprinos. O genoma do ORFV consiste de uma molécula de DNA de fita dupla com aproximadamente 138 Kb, que contém presumidamente 131 genes. Dentre estes, 15 são genes novos, identificados apenas nos parapoxvírus e que não possuem homologia com outros genes de origem viral ou celular. O presente estudo descreve a caracterização funcional de três destes genes, ORFV024, ORFV002 e ORFV121. Os resultados apresentados no presente estudo demonstram que as proteínas codificadas pelos genes ORFV024, ORFV002 e ORFV121 inibem a ativação da via de sinalização do fator de transcrição nuclear-kappa B (NF-κB). O produto da ORFV024 bloqueia a ativação da via do NF-κB no citoplasma celular, inibindo a fosforilação das quinases IκB (IKK), IKKα e IKKβ e, consequentemente inibindo a ativação do complexo IKK. A deleção do gene ORFV024 do genoma do ORFV não alterou a severidade, a progressão, ou o tempo de resolução das lesões produzidas pelo ORFV em ovinos, indicando que o produto deste gene não contribui para a virulência do vírus. O gene ORFV002 codifica um inibidor do NF-κB que atua no núcleo das células. O produto do ORFV002 interage com a subunidade NF-κB-p65 do NF-κB, inibindo a sua acetilação, uma modificação pós-traducional do NF-κB-p65 mediada pela acetiltransferase p300 que regula a sua atividade transcripcional. Semelhante ao ORFV024, a deleção do gene ORFV002 do genoma do ORFV não afetou a virulência do vírus nem alterou a patogenia da enfermidade em ovinos. O produto do gene ORFV121 atua no citoplasma das células, onde esta proteína viral interage com o NF-κB-p65 inibindo sua fosforilação e translocação nuclear. A deleção do gene ORFV121 do genoma do ORFV reduziu significativamente a severidade, a progressão e o tempo de resolução da doença em ovinos, indicando que este produto viral constitui-se em um fator de virulência para o ORFV em seu hospedeiro natural. Estes resultados demonstram que, assim como outros poxvírus, o ORFV também desenvolveu múltiplas estratégias para modular a via de sinalização do NF-κB, codificando proteínas que atuam em diferentes eventos desta complexa via de sinalização intracelular. Os resultados obtidos nos estudos de patogenia sugerem que os inibidores do NF-κB codificados pelo ORFV desempenham funções complementares e/ou redundantes, provavelmente, para promover um bloqueio efficiente dos processos biológicos regulados pelo NF-κB. Além disso, estes produtos virais podem modular diferentes processos biológicos controlados pelo NF-κB in vivo. Um melhor entendimento das interações do ORFV com o seu hospedeiro pode favorecer o desenvolvimento de vacinas mais eficazes para o ectima contagioso, ou ainda, promover o desenvolvimento de vacinas vetoriais ou imunoterápicos, baseados no ORFV, mais eficazes e com uma maior espectro de aplicações.