The question of how to create communities where people altruistically care for, and look out for each other’s health and well-being is increasingly a central question in academic literature. However, altruism has long been belittled or ignored in the literature in terms of its ability to influence human behaviour. This tendency appears to have been carried over into the management of West Nile Virus (WNV), a sometimes serious disease that has spread throughout North America since first arriving in 1999. Specifically, government health educators have focused only on telling the public how what are referred to here as Community Protective Measures (CPMs) such as the elimination of standing water, can reduce personal risk or protect family members from the disease, rather than explaining how these measures can help protect others in their community as a whole. As a different approach to addressing this issue, this study sought to determine which communities and people (1) were undertaking CPMs out of an altruistic concern for others in their community, or (2) could be encouraged to engage in CPMs by making salient the benefits of these measures to the community. Study results came back positive, those that live in urban areas, and married or widowed people as opposed to singles or divorcees, those with children exhibiting significantly more concern for others about the disease. Additionally, women; married or widowed people; those who have younger children (0-18 years old); and those who had certain strong positive feelings about their community, namely knowing people better in the community, being involved in the community, and having a sense that people help each other in the community; were significantly more likely to already be willing to take action against the disease at least partly for the purposes of protecting the health of others. Additionally, albeit not significantly, a trend was noted in this regard with respect to those that rented and those who had children.. With regard to those who could be encouraged for altruistic reasons to undertake CPMs, such was found to be significantly the case for those not living in an Adult Lifestyle Communities (ALCs); those living in a city, town, or hamlet for a long (11-25 years) period of time; younger individuals (18 -35 years old), and singles or divorcees as opposed to married or widowed individuals. Although not found to be significant, a trend in this regard was found with respect to those that perceived themselves to live in a small- or medium-sized neighbourhoods, urban as opposed to suburban areas, females, renters, and those without children. A pilot study in a community with the characteristics where respondents were found to respond to learning about the community benefits of CPMs, as well as efforts to instill the characteristics of places where people already tend to be altruistically inclined, is recommended. The thesis concludes by discussing how relying upon, and encouraging altruistic tendencies could be applied to a variety of issues ranging from the control of other infectious diseases, to encouraging other health promoting behaviour such as the donation of organs, to addressing wider national as well as global matters like poverty or global climate change. By doing so, health and other planners could potentially take a more holistic, less rational, and advocacy approach to planning that seeks to build community capacity to deal with problems rather than reacting on a problem-by-problem basis.

Diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) is a key for the synthesis of triacylglycerol (TAG) from diacylglycerol in the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) and fatty acid synthase (FAS) are responsible for the synthesis of fatty acids. We found the TAG and fatty acid synthesis related genes in C. reinhardtii, including five DGAT (DGAT1 (JGI 184281), DGAT2 (JGI 400751), DGAT3 (JGI 285889), DGAT4 (JGI 141301), and DGAT5 (JGI 190539)), three £] ketoacyl-ACP reductase isoforms ( (JGI 153976), (JGI 153976), and (JGI 194728)) and two £] ketoacyl-ACP synthase isofroms ( (JGI 139619) and (JGI 205887)) for FAS, and ACC £\ (NCBI XP_001696945.1), ACC £] (NCBI XP_001703187.1) and ACC biotin carboxylase ( NCBI XP_001702319.1)) for ACCase in C. reinhardtii. This investigation designed the primers of the above genes to determine whether acetate influences their mRNA expression levels in cell-wall less strain CC400 in the nitrogen starvation condition. The results showed that the absence of nitrogen in the medium triggered the lipid accumulation for the strains of CC400 in the condition of 50 £gE light. DGAT3 mRNA levels were increased by nitrogen starvation. For the FAS genes, in the strain of CC400 showed no increased mRNA levels upon exposure to nitrogen starvation. The mRNA levels of ACC£\, ACC £] and ACC biotin carboxylase were more or less decreased by nitrogen starvation in CC400 strains. Thus, the responses of DGAT gene expression to acetate supplement were checked. The absence of acetate from the medium partly inhibited the nitrogen starvation induced increases in lipid and DGAT3 mRNA levels, and the mRNA levels of DGAT1 and DGAT2 in the nitrogen starvation condition. However, DGAT4 mRNA levels were significantly induced by the absence of acetate from the medium. In conclusion, the present study demonstrate that acetate is required for the nitrogen starvation induced DGAT3 gene expression (mRNA levels) and lipid accumulation in C. reinhardtii.

This study was to determine the effects of several selected environmental factors (temperature, salinity, light intensity, and acetate) on the nitrogen starvation induced lipid accumulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii CC 400 by the Nile Red staining of lipid in the cells. Nitrogen starvation induced lipid accumulation, the extent of lipid accumulation increased as nitrogen concentrations in the medium decreased. For the 9.4 mM NH4Cl of HS medium as 100% N, the absence of NH4Cl from the medium will show the maximum induction in the lipid accumulation. This was also observed in the treatment of algal cells in mid-log phase by the absence of NH4Cl in the medium. A decrease in temperature down to 15oC depressed the nitrogen starvation induction in lipid accumulation for the algal cells from the mid-log phase, while the elevation in the light intensity up to 300 £gmol photons • m-2 • s-1 also showed an inhibitory effect. However, the transfer to darkness for the nitrogen starvation also inhibited the lipid increase. The addition of 100 mM NaCl enhanced the nitrogen starvation induced lipid accumulation but the NaCl level up to 200 mM inhibited the increment. The nitrogen starvation induction of lipid increase was partly inhibited due to the absence of acetate, whereas the increase in acetate concentrations in the medium did not have effect on lipid accumulation as compared to normal acetate addition in the medium. Overall, the results of the present study show that light and acetate are essential factors for the maximum lipid accumulation in C. reinhardtii by nitrogen starvation.

Land subsidence and coastal erosion are worldwide problems, particularly in densely populated deltas. The Nile Delta is no exception. Currently, it is undergoing land subsidence and is simultaneously experiencing retreat of its coastline. The impacts of these long-term interrelated geomorphic problems are heightened by the economic, social and historical importance of the delta to Egypt. Unfortunately, the current measures of the rates of subsidence and coastal erosion in the delta are rough estimates at best. Sustainable development of the delta requires accurate and detailed spatial and temporal measures of subsidence and coastal retreat rates. Radar interferometry is a unique remote sensing approach that can be used to map topography with 1 m vertical accuracy and measure surface deformation with 1 mm level accuracy. Radar interferometry has been employed in this dissertation to measure urban subsidence and coastal change in the Nile Delta. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data of 5.66 cm wavelength acquired by the European Radar Satellites (ERS-1 and ERS- 2) spanning eight years (1993-2000) have been used in this investigation. The ERS data have been selected because the spatial and temporal coverage, as well as the short wavelength, are appropriate to measure the slow rate of subsidence in the delta. The ERS tandem coherence images are also appropriate for coastal change detection. The magnitude and pattern of subsidence are detected and measured using Permanent Scatterer interferometry. The measured rates of subsidence in greater Cairo, Mansura, and Mahala are 7, 9, and 5 mm yr-1, respectively. Areas of erosion and accretion in the eastern side of the delta are detected using the ERS tandem coherence and the ERS amplitude images. The average measured rates of erosion and accretion are -9.57 and +5.44 m yr-1, respectively. These measured rates pose an urgent need of regular monitoring of subsidence and coastline retreat in the delta. This study highlighted the feasibility of applying Permanent Scatterer interferometry in inappropriate environment for conventional SAR interferometry. The study addressed possibilities and limitations for successful use of SAR interferometry within the densely vegetated delta and introduced alternative strategies for further improvement of SAR interferometric measurements in the delta.

Cellular T-cell intracellular antigen-1 related protein (TIAR) binds to the 3' terminal stem-loop of the West Nile virus minus-strand RNA [WNV 3'(-) SL RNA]. TIAR binding sites were previously mapped on loop 1 (L1) and loop 2 (L2) of the 3' (-) SL RNA and mutations of these sites in a WNV infectious clone inhibited virus replication. In the present study, data from in vitro binding assays suggested that multiple TIAR proteins bind to each WNV 3′ (-) SL RNA in a positively cooperative manner. The tertiary structure of WNV 3′ (-) SL RNA was predicted and it was suggested that L2 forms an exposed loop while L1 forms an embedded loop. We propose that TIAR binds first to L2 and that this interaction facilitates the binding of a second TIAR molecule to L1. Data from in vitro assays also showed that TIAR binds specifically to the WNV 3' (-) SL RNA but not to the complementary WNV 5' (+) SL RNA and that the C-terminal prion domain of TIAR contributes to RNA binding specificity. Immunoprecipitation experiments indicated that TIAR interacts with the WNV 3' (-) SL RNA in cells. Colocalization of TIAR and viral dsRNA in the perinuclear region of WNV-infected cells was visualized using a proximity ligation assay. In WNV-infected, TIAR-overexpressing cells, increased extracellular virus yields, intracellular viral protein and RNA levels, and an increased ratio of viral plus-strand RNA to minus-strand RNA were observed. These data suggest that TIAR enhances WNV plus-strand RNA synthesis from the minus-strand template. WNV infections induce small TIAR foci formation in primate cells but not rodent cells. The TIAR foci are located in the perinuclear region and differ in size and location from arsenite-induced stress granules (SGs). However, the small TIAR foci contain many SG components, such as G3BP, PABP, and eIF3A, but not HuR. Arsenite-induced SG formation is still inhibited by WNV infection in these cells. eIF2a phosphorylation was observed in some infected cells that contained WNV-induced TIAR foci but viral NS3 protein accumulation was not inhibited. The data suggest that WNV-induced TIAR foci in primate cells are not canonical SGs.

West Nile virus affected nearly 2,000 people in Texas in 2012, killing 89. Neither state and local public health institutions nor the medical community were well prepared for the unprecedented outbreak. The virus is carried by mosquitoes and can cause paralysis and other neurological damage. Other diseases carried by insect vectors, like dengue fever, are poised to resurge or emerge in Texas. Suspected effects of climate change, like warmer winters, may contribute to the prevalence of such diseases and frequency of outbreaks. Adequate surveillance of human cases of these diseases is crucial to the public health response, but is hampered by a low level of diagnosis and reporting throughout the state and spotty vector surveillance by local entities. / text

Despite teleosts being the largest and most diverse group of vertebrates, fish models currently used to study photoperiodic effects on fish physiology have been limited to a few species, most of which are temperate seasonal breeders. The overall aim of this work was to expand our knowledge on circadian biology and environmental physiological effects in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus niloticus), a continuous breeding species of tropical-subtropical origin. The circadian light axis of Nile tilapia is described with regards to melatonin production. Circadian melatonin profiles of fish under 12L:12D photoperiods were observed to be low at day and high at night, suggesting melatonin to be an entraining signal as observed in all other vertebrates. When constant light (LL) was used, such day and night fluctuations where abolished. However when fish where exposed to constant darkness (DD) a strong robust endogenous melatonin rhythm was found, suggesting the presence of circadian oscillators in this species. Importantly, this endogenous rhythm was observed to be maintained for at least three weeks under darkness and proved to be circadian in nature. Moreover, although the melatonin system was able to produce day and night melatonin rhythms when exposed to a different (6L:6D) photocycle, the oscillator appeared to not be entrainable to such a short photo cycle when exposed to DD, as melatonin levels remained high. When comparing the circadian organization of different teleost species including Nile tilapia, preliminary studies showed at least three divergent circadian light organizations in teleosts. Nile tilapia was characterised by a pineal gland far less sensitive than in other fish species as demonstrated through in vitro studies. Furthermore, pineal melatonin production was clearly dependent on the light perceived by the eyes as ophthalmectomy resulted in basal plasma melatonin levels during the dark period. These findings are the first to be reported in a teleost and could be comparable to the circadian light organization of higher vertebrates such as mammals. The onset of puberty of Nile tilapia was studied with regards to the newly discovered Kiss1/GPR54 system. Such a system has recently been discovered in mammals and found to be the primary switch of the brain-pituitary-gonadal (BPG) axis. The results of this study not only suggest a link between the Kiss1/GPR54 system and the onset of III puberty in this tropical batch spawning teleost, that would be a highly conserved feature across vertebrates, but also that the transcriptional mechanisms regulating GPR54 expression could be directly or indirectly influenced by light. Finally, a study was conducted on the effects of different intensities of continuous light (LL) on the growth and sexual development of Nile tilapia up to first maturation. The results showed a significant growth response of fish in all LL treatments compared to control fish. Importantly, this confirmed that LL enhances growth in this species and suggests that it is the light regime more than the intensity which is having an effect. This work thus provides important basic knowledge of the light entrainment pathway and circadian melatonin rhythms in Nile tilapia. Of special importance is the discovery of a strong endogenous melatonin oscillator and a novel circadian organization in fish which would seem to be homologous to that observed in higher vertebrates. Moreover, this work provides evidence that the newly discovered Kiss1/GPR54 system has a similar role in fish as has been found in mammals and that such a system could be directly or indirectly regulated by light. If so, Nile tilapia and other fish species could become important models in the chronobiology and reproduction fields. Finally, this work not only increases our basic and applied knowledge of this species, but also broadens our understanding of the circadian light axis in teleosts and its mediatory effects on reproduction.

Detecting stress in plants resulting from different stressors including nitrogen deficiency, salinity, moisture, contamination and diseases, is crucial in crop production. In the Nile Valley, crop production is hindered perhaps more fundamentally by issues of water supply and salinity. Predicting stress in crops by conventional methods is tedious, laborious and costly and is perhaps unreliable in providing a spatial context of stress patterns. Accurate and quick monitoring techniques for crop status to detect stress in crops at early growth stages are needed to maximize crop productivity. In this context, remotely sensed data may provide a useful tool in precision farming. This research aims to evaluate the role of in situ hyperspectral and high spatial resolution satellite remote sensing data to detect stress in wheat and maize crops and assess whether moisture induced stress can be distinguished from salinity induced stress spectrally. A series of five greenhouse based experiments on wheat and maize were undertaken subjecting both crops to a range of salinity and moisture stress levels. Spectroradiometry measurements were collected at different growth stages of each crop to assess the relationship between crop biophysical and biochemical properties and reflectance measurements from plant canopies. Additionally, high spatial resolution satellite images including two QuickBird, one ASTER and two SPOT HRV were acquired in south-west Alexandria, Egypt to assess the potential of high spectral and spatial resolution satellite imagery to detect stress in wheat and maize at local and regional scales. Two field work visits were conducted in Egypt to collect ground reference data and coupled with Hyperion imagery acquisition, during winter and summer seasons of 2007 in March (8-30: wheat) and July (12-17: maize). Despite efforts, Hyperion imagery was not acquired due to factors out with the control of this research. Strong significant correlations between crop properties and different vegetation indices derived from both ground based and satellite platforms were observed. RDVI showed a sensitive index to different wheat properties (r > 0.90 with different biophysical properties). In maize, GNDVIbr and Cgreen had strong significant correlations with maize biophysical properties (r > 0.80). PCA showed the possibility to distinguish between moisture and salinity induced stress at the grain filling stages. The results further showed that a combined approach of high (2-5 m) and moderate (15-20) spatial resolution satellite imagery can provide a better mechanistic interpretation of the distribution and sources of stress, despite the typical small size of fields (20-50 m scale). QuickBird imagery successfully detects stress within field and local scales, whereas SPOT HRV imagery is useful in detecting stress at a regional scale, and therefore, can be a robust tool in identifying issues of crop management at a regional scale. Due to the limited spectral capabilities of high spatial resolution images, distinguishing different sources of stress is not directly possible, and therefore, hyperspectral satellite imagery (e.g. Hyperion or HyspIRI) is required to distinguish between moisture and salinity induced stress. It is evident from the results that remotely sensed data acquired by both in situ hyperspectral and high spatial resolution satellite remote sensing can be used as a useful tool in precision farming in the Nile Valley, Egypt. A combined approach of using reliable high spatial and spectral satellite remote sensing data could provide better insight about stress at local and regional scales. Using this technique as a precision farming and management tool will lead to improved crop productivity by limiting stress and consequently provide a valuable tool in combating issues of food supply at a time of rapid population growth.

In order to combine previous observations from different sources on sex determination, and to identify sex chromosomes including the major sex determination locus in Nile tilapia, physical and genetic maps based on sex-linked markers and genes (such as sex-linked AFLPs, microsatellites, ovarian aromatase and DMO genes) were integrated and anchored. An accurate physical map using FISH techniques on mitotic cells was developed based on a previous map and 23 tilapia BAC clones previously assigned to linkage groups (LGs) 1, 3, 6, 7, 10 and 12; and on meiotic cells, 2 BAC clones containing the SLAM OniY227 and the dmrt4 gene were mapped. The six linkage groups were then assigned to different chromosomes, but surprisingly, the putative sex LG1 was located to a small submetacentric chromosome and not to the larger subtelocentric chromosome 1, where LG3 was assigned instead. The other LGs were assigned to different chromosomes and oriented with respect to the centromeres. A detailed comparison of the physical distribution of markers on chromosome 1 with respect to LG3 revealed a suppression in recombination in the subtelomeric region of the q arm between the marker GM354 (0 cM) and clcn5 (29 cM) and an abrupt increment of recombination between clcn5 (29 cM) and GM128 (77 cM) close to the centromere (Flpter=0.2). The unpairing region (20% of the total length) observed on the larger bivalents of XY fish during early pachytene in meiotic cells has been confirmed by DAPI staining and FISH to be at the terminal part of the q arm, opposite to the centromere. Comparison with six other tilapia species (2n=44) revealed a well conserved karyological distribution of the suspected LGs associated with sex determination (1 and 3). Besides, in O. karongae (2n=38) it was shown by SATA and UNH995/UNH104 marker hybridisation that LG1 has been re-arranged into the subtelomeric chromosome 2 as a result of a telomere-telomere fusion. A pool of 15 tilapia BAC clones previously localised on chromosome 1 and containing sex-linked AFLPs, dmrt1, dmrt4 and several SINEs were screened for new microsatellites; BACs were digested with SAU3AI and TC, GT, ATCT and CTGT probes radio-labelled with 32P. The high abundance of repetitive sequences in the BACs used led to only one useful polymorphic and co-dominant marker being obtained, associated to a BAC clone containing a copy of the dmrt1 gene on chromosome 1 (Flpter=0.85). Four linkage maps were constructed from an XY male, XY neofemale, XX neomale and XX female, mapping 4 and 8 markers on LG1 and LG3 (including the dmrt1 associated microsatellite) respectively. A specific sex-determination locus was identified on LG1 clearly linked with UNH995. However there appeared to be different allelic strengths for this sex determination locus, as shown by different sex ratios associated with different UNH995 genotypes. Additionally, one of the two XX fish mapped, showed the location of the recessive black blotching trait on LG3 (chromosome 1) between the markers GM128 and GM526, close to the centromere (Flpter=0.14). The results presented suggest a nascent Y chromosome in early stage of differentiation in Nile tilapia and with a functional master gene on LG1 close to the marker UNH995 (Flpter=0.67) located on the q arm of a small submetacentric chromosome. The potential influences of the autosomal LG3 (chromosome 1) in sex differentiation are also discussed.

This dissertation seeks to demonstrate Lucan's profound engagement and conflict with two ancient intellectual and literary traditions that can both be regarded as escapist, that is, as promising or postulating a sanctuary (whether physical or spiritual) from the world's troubles, and that were both active in Lucan's own day: utopian writing about science, exemplified in Latin by Lucan's uncle Seneca the Younger, as well as by the astronomical poet Manilius, and utopian Egyptology, as reflected in a wide variety of texts ranging from Herodotus, through Diodorus Siculus, to Lucan's contemporary, the Alexandrian polymath Chaeremon. To this end, I have examined two closely related sequences in the De Bello Civili that have received little attention from scholars of Lucan, namely Pompey's journey to Egypt in Book Eight and Caesar's Egyptian sojourn in Book Ten, during which Lucan's two main characters are each shown attempting to take refuge from the poem's ubiquitous violence through the double avenue of travel to Egypt (to which the defeated Pompey flees, and where his pursuer Caesar hopes to leave the civil war behind) and the practice of natural science (with Pompey's astronomical inquiry and Caesar's investigation of the Nile). In this context, I have also considered Cato's Libyan adventures, from the intervening Book Nine. Both Pompey and Caesar discover that escape through either method is impossible, for the fabled Egyptian Shangri-La is now embroiled in the political, social, and economic crisis of the outside world, while not only the natural universe but even the very act of inquiry into nature are alike contaminated by the ethos of civil war. The virtuous Cato, on the other hand, does not even make the attempt, maintaining a single-minded focus on his civic duties. By revealing such escape to be both immoral (through Cato's example) and impossible (through the examples of Pompey and Caesar), Lucan signals his decisive rejection of the escapist predilections of many of his contemporaries (including his uncle Seneca and his own father Annaeus Mela), who tried to distance themselves from the vicissitudes of political life under the later Julio-Claudians through retirement into a state of philosophical otium.