Nos últimos anos, as indústrias têm mostrado muito interesse em procurar sistemas de pinturas que possam ser mais eficientes na proteção do substrato metálico. Os sistemas comuns de pinturas criam uma barreira passiva sobre substrato que evita o contato com a água e outras espécies agressivas. No entanto, a degradação do revestimento pode ocorrer como consequência de fatores externos como radiação UV, temperatura ou ação mecânica. Por este motivo, pesquisadores têm buscado sistemas de pintura com proteção ativa que sejam capazes de se autorreparar (self-healing), levando o substrato a um tempo de vida em serviço mais prolongado. Uma maneira para atingir este efeito ativo é a incorporação de sistemas de nanocontainers ou nanorreservatórios com material ativo encapsulado (inibidores de corrosão) na matriz do revestimento. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar o efeito na resistência à corrosão do aço carbono ABNT 1020 numa solução de NaCl 0,01 mol/L quando seja submetido a um prétratamento com camada de tinta alquídica aditivada com nanocontainers contendo o inibidor de corrosão dodecilamina. Três tipos de nanocontainers foram avaliados: 1) nanocontainers a base de nanopartículas de sílica revestida com diferentes camadas de polieletrólitos. 2) nanocontainers a base do mineral haloisita. 3) nanocontainers a base de uma sílica mesoporosa com arranjo ordenado hexagonal tipo SBA-15. Também foi estudada a cinética de liberação do inibidor dodecilamina dos diferentes tipos de nanocontainers usando a técnica de impedância eletroquímica. Os métodos eletroquímicos utilizados para avaliar a resistência a corrosão e o efeito de autorreparação ou self healing foram a técnica de varredura do eletrodo vibratório (SVET) e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIS), obtidas em solução aerada de NaCl 0,01 mol/L para chapas de aço carbono revestidas. Testes acelerados de corrosão numa câmara de névoa salina (SSC) foram realizados seguindo a norma ASTM B 117-11. As imagens de microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão foram obtidas para conhecer a estrutura e morfologia dos nanocontainers e o aspecto dos corpos de prova pintados. A caracterização da sílica mesoporosa foi realizada por termogravimetria (TGA), adsorção e dessorção de nitrogênio e difração de raios-X. Os estudos de cinética de liberação do inibidor foram realizados numa solução de NaCl 0,1 mol/L a diferentes valores de pH (2, 9 e 6.2) e contendo 1% m/m de nanocontainers carregados com inibidor dodecilamina, onde foi possível demonstrar que a pH 2 a velocidade de liberação do inibidor foi maior para os três tipos de nanocontainers estudados. Com relação aos resultados de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIS) e técnica de varredura com eletrodo vibratório (SVET) para os corpos de prova revestidos com uma tinta alquídica contendo 10 % m/m de nanopartículas de sílica obtidas por Lb-L ou haloisita e 15 % m/m de sílica mesoporosa foi comprovado o efeito selfhealing da tinta pela liberação do inibidor dodecilamina encapsulado dentro da estrutura do nanocontainer. Este efeito também foi notado nos testes de névoa salina, onde o inibidor de corrosão é liberado pelo abaixamento do pH nas regiões anódicas ou de corrosão retardando o processo de corrosão na região do defeito. / In the last years, the industries have shown much interest in searching painting systems that may be more effective in protecting the metallic substrate. Common painting systems create a passive barrier over the substrate that avoids contact with the water and other aggressive species. However, degradation of the coating may occur as a result of external factors such as UV radiation, temperature or mechanical action. For this reason, researchers have sought paint active protection systems that are able to self-repair (self-healing) leading to a longer lifetime of the substrate. One way to achieve this active effect is the incorporation of nanocontainer systems with encapsulated active material (corrosion inhibitors) to the coating matrix. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect on corrosion resistance of carbon steel ABNT 1020 in aerated 0.1 mol/L NaCl solution when it is subjected to a pretreatment with alkyd paint layer doped with nanocontainers containing dodecylamine as corrosion inhibitor. Three types of nanocontainers were evaluated: 1) SiO2 nanoparticles coated with polyelectrolytes multilayers. 2) halloysite nanoparticles. 3) type SBA-15 mesoporous silica particles of. The kinetics of release of the inhibitor dodecylamine from the different types of nanocontainers was also determined indirectly using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique. Electrochemical measurements were performed to evaluate the self-healing effect of coated carbon steel panels after a provoked defect with scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), all measurements were performed in an aerated NaCl 0.01 mol/L solution. Accelerated corrosion tests in salt spray chamber (SSC) were also carried out following the prescriptions of ASTM B 117-11 standard. The images from optical, scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy were obtained to show the morphology and structure of the nanocontainers and the aspect of coated samples. The characterization of mesoporous silica was made by transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetry (TGA), adsorption/desorption of N2 and X-ray diffraction. Kinetic studies of the release of encapsulated corrosion inhibitor were performed in NaCl 0.1 mol/L solution at different pH values (2, 9 and 6.2) containing 1 wt. % of dispersed nanocontainers loaded with dodecylamine inhibitor, and it was possible to confirm that at pH 2 condition the release of inhibitor was more efficient in comparison to other pH conditions (9 and 6.2). On the other hand, the results obtained by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) of the coated carbon steel panels with alkyd paint loaded with 10 wt. % (SiO2 nanoparticles or halloysite) and 15 wt. % (mesoporous silica) has proven the self-healing effect by the release of corrosion inhibitor from nanocontainers on the defect area triggered by the pH decrease typical of anodic or corroding areas. This self-healing and protective effect was also noticed in salt spray tests, where the corrosion inhibitor was released slowing down the corrosion process on the defective region.

Nos últimos anos, as indústrias têm mostrado muito interesse em procurar sistemas de pinturas que possam ser mais eficientes na proteção do substrato metálico. Os sistemas comuns de pinturas criam uma barreira passiva sobre substrato que evita o contato com a água e outras espécies agressivas. No entanto, a degradação do revestimento pode ocorrer como consequência de fatores externos como radiação UV, temperatura ou ação mecânica. Por este motivo, pesquisadores têm buscado sistemas de pintura com proteção ativa que sejam capazes de se autorreparar (self-healing), levando o substrato a um tempo de vida em serviço mais prolongado. Uma maneira para atingir este efeito ativo é a incorporação de sistemas de nanocontainers ou nanorreservatórios com material ativo encapsulado (inibidores de corrosão) na matriz do revestimento. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar o efeito na resistência à corrosão do aço carbono ABNT 1020 numa solução de NaCl 0,01 mol/L quando seja submetido a um prétratamento com camada de tinta alquídica aditivada com nanocontainers contendo o inibidor de corrosão dodecilamina. Três tipos de nanocontainers foram avaliados: 1) nanocontainers a base de nanopartículas de sílica revestida com diferentes camadas de polieletrólitos. 2) nanocontainers a base do mineral haloisita. 3) nanocontainers a base de uma sílica mesoporosa com arranjo ordenado hexagonal tipo SBA-15. Também foi estudada a cinética de liberação do inibidor dodecilamina dos diferentes tipos de nanocontainers usando a técnica de impedância eletroquímica. Os métodos eletroquímicos utilizados para avaliar a resistência a corrosão e o efeito de autorreparação ou self healing foram a técnica de varredura do eletrodo vibratório (SVET) e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIS), obtidas em solução aerada de NaCl 0,01 mol/L para chapas de aço carbono revestidas. Testes acelerados de corrosão numa câmara de névoa salina (SSC) foram realizados seguindo a norma ASTM B 117-11. As imagens de microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão foram obtidas para conhecer a estrutura e morfologia dos nanocontainers e o aspecto dos corpos de prova pintados. A caracterização da sílica mesoporosa foi realizada por termogravimetria (TGA), adsorção e dessorção de nitrogênio e difração de raios-X. Os estudos de cinética de liberação do inibidor foram realizados numa solução de NaCl 0,1 mol/L a diferentes valores de pH (2, 9 e 6.2) e contendo 1% m/m de nanocontainers carregados com inibidor dodecilamina, onde foi possível demonstrar que a pH 2 a velocidade de liberação do inibidor foi maior para os três tipos de nanocontainers estudados. Com relação aos resultados de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIS) e técnica de varredura com eletrodo vibratório (SVET) para os corpos de prova revestidos com uma tinta alquídica contendo 10 % m/m de nanopartículas de sílica obtidas por Lb-L ou haloisita e 15 % m/m de sílica mesoporosa foi comprovado o efeito selfhealing da tinta pela liberação do inibidor dodecilamina encapsulado dentro da estrutura do nanocontainer. Este efeito também foi notado nos testes de névoa salina, onde o inibidor de corrosão é liberado pelo abaixamento do pH nas regiões anódicas ou de corrosão retardando o processo de corrosão na região do defeito. / In the last years, the industries have shown much interest in searching painting systems that may be more effective in protecting the metallic substrate. Common painting systems create a passive barrier over the substrate that avoids contact with the water and other aggressive species. However, degradation of the coating may occur as a result of external factors such as UV radiation, temperature or mechanical action. For this reason, researchers have sought paint active protection systems that are able to self-repair (self-healing) leading to a longer lifetime of the substrate. One way to achieve this active effect is the incorporation of nanocontainer systems with encapsulated active material (corrosion inhibitors) to the coating matrix. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect on corrosion resistance of carbon steel ABNT 1020 in aerated 0.1 mol/L NaCl solution when it is subjected to a pretreatment with alkyd paint layer doped with nanocontainers containing dodecylamine as corrosion inhibitor. Three types of nanocontainers were evaluated: 1) SiO2 nanoparticles coated with polyelectrolytes multilayers. 2) halloysite nanoparticles. 3) type SBA-15 mesoporous silica particles of. The kinetics of release of the inhibitor dodecylamine from the different types of nanocontainers was also determined indirectly using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique. Electrochemical measurements were performed to evaluate the self-healing effect of coated carbon steel panels after a provoked defect with scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), all measurements were performed in an aerated NaCl 0.01 mol/L solution. Accelerated corrosion tests in salt spray chamber (SSC) were also carried out following the prescriptions of ASTM B 117-11 standard. The images from optical, scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy were obtained to show the morphology and structure of the nanocontainers and the aspect of coated samples. The characterization of mesoporous silica was made by transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetry (TGA), adsorption/desorption of N2 and X-ray diffraction. Kinetic studies of the release of encapsulated corrosion inhibitor were performed in NaCl 0.1 mol/L solution at different pH values (2, 9 and 6.2) containing 1 wt. % of dispersed nanocontainers loaded with dodecylamine inhibitor, and it was possible to confirm that at pH 2 condition the release of inhibitor was more efficient in comparison to other pH conditions (9 and 6.2). On the other hand, the results obtained by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) of the coated carbon steel panels with alkyd paint loaded with 10 wt. % (SiO2 nanoparticles or halloysite) and 15 wt. % (mesoporous silica) has proven the self-healing effect by the release of corrosion inhibitor from nanocontainers on the defect area triggered by the pH decrease typical of anodic or corroding areas. This self-healing and protective effect was also noticed in salt spray tests, where the corrosion inhibitor was released slowing down the corrosion process on the defective region.

This work, within EPSRC LATEST2 (Light Alloys Towards Environmentally Sustainable Transport 2) Programme Grant, is focused on the development of environmentally-friendly corrosion inhibitors, nanocontainers loaded with inhibitors and epoxy coatings for corrosion protection of the aerospace alloy AA 2024-T3. More specifically, the electrochemical techniques of image assisted electrochemical noise, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, split-cell technique and potentiodynamic polarization were used for the qualitative and quantitative evaluation and characterization of environmentally-friendly corrosion inhibitors on AA 2024-T3. Scanning electron microscopy observations complemented the electrochemical measurements. It was found that the organic inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole provides excellent corrosion inhibition properties to AA 2024-T3 in 3.5% sodium chloride solution. Among the tested nitrates, cerium nitrate provides the best inhibition performance. The concentration of the nitrate salt is critical in determining the corrosion protection. An excessive concentration of nitrate ions results in the dissolution of copper-containing oxides, increasing the corrosion rate. Different types of core-shell structured nanocontainers were synthesised with the methods of distillation precipitation polymerization, emulsion polymerization and sol-gel. The nanocontainers were characterized by scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy observations. The corrosion inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole was encapsulated into the nanocontainers. The encapsulation of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole was evaluated with energy dispersive X-ray analysis mapping micrographs from transmission electron microscopy measurements. Epoxy coatings with nanocontainers loaded with 2-mercaptobenzothiazole were applied on AA 2024-T3 for protection against corrosion. The corrosion protection properties of the coatings were evaluated with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The results indicated that epoxy coatings provide excellent barrier properties to AA 2024-T3 in the demanding environment of 3.5% sodium chloride solution with low frequency impedance values more than 1 GOhm cm2 for over 4000 hours of testing. Coatings containing nanocontainers loaded with 2-mercaptobenzothiazole tested with an artificial scribe revealed protection of the AA 2024-T3 substrate in the scribed area, decrease of the anodic delamination in the early hours and decrease number of cathodic dark areas after long immersion time. Overall, epoxy coatings with encapsulated inhibitors can be considered as a promising system for potential replacement of hexavalent chromium treatments on aerospace alloy AA 2024-T3.

Η εργασία έγινε στα πλαίσια του ευρωπαϊκού προγράμματος “MULTIPROTECT”, NMP3-CT-2005-011783 με συμμετοχή 31 εργαστηρίων από την Ευρώπη. Το πρόγραμμα αυτό επεκτάθηκε για άλλα τέσσερα χρόνια με ένα νέο πρόγραμμα FP7 με σύντομο τίτλο “MUST”. Σκοπός του προγράμματος είναι η αντικατάσταση της υπάρχουσας τεχνολογίας προστασίας μεταλλικών επιστρώσεων από την διάβρωση που περιέχουν εξασθενές χρώμιο, με καινούργιες μεθόδους που χρησιμοποιούν υλικά φιλικά προς το περιβάλλον και τον άνθρωπο. Το κράμα αργιλίου 2024 – Τ3 χρησιμοποιείται σε προηγμένες τεχνολογικά εφαρμογές, όπου απαιτείται η υψηλή αντοχή και το χαμηλό βάρος, όμως λόγω των στοιχείων κραμάτωσης, όπου οφείλεται η αύξηση των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων του, γίνεται ευάλωτο στην διάβρωση και η ανάγκη για την εξεύρεση προστατευτικών επιστρώσεων φιλικές προς το περιβάλλον είναι επιτακτική. Μια από τις εναλλακτικές τεχνολογίες που εξελίσσονται στο εργαστήριο Sol-Gel αφορά την σύνθεση sol-gel ηλεκτροχημικών και χημικών επιστρώσεων και η βελτίωση τους με προσθήκη νανοδοχείων πληρωμένων με αναστολείς διάβρωσης. Η εργασία αυτή δομείται από δύο μέρη. Αρχικά, στο θεωρητικό μέρος παρουσιάζεται το φαινόμενο της διάβρωσης και συζητούνται ζητήματα που αφορούν την ηλεκτροχημική της φύση όπως η θεωρία ηλεκτρικής διπλοστοιβάδας, τα δυναμικά των ηλεκτροδίων και η εξίσωση Butler-Volmer. Παρουσιάζονται οι ιδιότητες του αλουμινίου και των κραμάτων του και περιγράφονται τα είδη της διάβρωσης γι αυτό. Συνεχίζοντας παρουσιάζεται η μέθοδος sol-gel και αναλύονται τα στάδια της. Τελειώνοντας το θεωρητικό μέρος παρουσιάζονται οι πειραματικές τεχνικές που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για τον χαρακτηρισμό του πειραματικού μέρους. Αυτές είναι η ηλεκτροχημική φασματοσκοπία σύνθετης αντίστασης (EIS), η ποτενσιοδυναμική πόλωση (potentiodynamic polarization), η ηλεκτρονιακή μικροσκοπία (SEM), η φασματοσκοπία ενεργειακής διασποράς ακτίνων Χ (EDX), η Θερμοβαρομετρική αναλυση (TG) και η διαφορική θερμική ανάλυση (DTA), η μέθοδος ΒΕΤ, η φασματοσκοπία υπερύθρου (FT-IR) και η φασματοσκοπία ακτίνων X (XRD). Το πειραματικό μέρος μπορεί να διακριθεί σε δύο ενότητες. Αρχικά στη σύνθεση και μελέτη νανοδοχείων Ce-Ti που εμπλουτίστηκαν με χημικές ενώσεις, οι οποίες λειτουργούν ως αναστολείς διάβρωσης. Περιγράφεται ο μηχανισμός λειτουργάς των αναστολέων διάβρωσης που επιλέχθηκαν (Νιτρικό δημήτριο, 2-Μερκαπτοβεζοθιαζόλη και 8-Υδροξυκινολίη). Η διαδικασία που ακολουθήθηκε για την σύνθεση των νανοδοχείων οξειδίου τιτανίου/δημητρίου χωρίζεται σε τρία βήματα. Αρχικά στην παρασκευή θετικά φορτισμένων νανοσφαιρών πολυστυρενίου (PS) στη συνέχεια ακολουθεί η επικάλυψη των πυρήνων αυτών και τέλος η θερμική επεξεργασία (calcination), όπου το δείγμα θερμαίνεται σε υψηλή θερμοκρασία με σκοπό την καταστροφή του υποστρώματος και την δημιουργία των νανοδοχείων. Ακολούθησε η πλήρωση των νανοδοχείων με αναστολείς διάβρωσης υπό υψηλό κενό. Μελετήθηκε η μορφολογία και η σύσταση των νανοδοχείων καθώς επίσης και απελευθέρωση των αναστολέων διάβρωσης. Η δεύτερη ενότητα του πειραματικού μέρους αφορά τη σύνθεση και μελέτη αντιδιαβρωτικών ORMOSIL επιστρώσεων. Για την σύνθεση των επιστρώσεων χρησιμοποιήθηκαν δύο μέθοδοι. Η ηλεκτροχημική μέθοδος, η οποία είναι μία καινοτόμος μέθοδος για τη δημιουργία επιστρώσεων και η μέθοδος της εμβύθισης (μία ή τέσσερις εμβυθίσεις), μία κλασική μέθοδος δημιουργίας επιστρώσεων η οποία επιλέχθηκε για σύγκριση με την πρώτη μέθοδο. Ως μόρια εκκινητές μελετήθηκαν 3-γλυσιδοξυ-προπιλ-τριμεθοξυ-σιλάνιο (GPTMS), Διαιθοξυ-διμεθυλο-σιλάνιο (DEDMOS) και τριμεθοξυ-μεθυλο-σιλάνιο (TMOMS). Το GPTMS παρέχοντας την καλύτερη αντιδιαβρωτική προστασία επιλέχθηκε για περεταίρω μελέτη. Για την βελτίωση των επιστρώσεων μελετήθηκαν διάφοροι παράμετροι όπως η συγκέντρωση του ηλεκτρολύτη, ο χρόνος ηλεκτροχημικής εναπόθεσης, ο ρυθμός αφαίρεσης από το διάλυμα κατά τις επιστρώσεις με την μέθοδο τα εμβύθισης, ο χρόνος και η θερμοκρασία ξήρανσης, η προσθήκη νανοσωματιδίων (διοξειδίου του δημητρίου, δημητρίου-μολυβδενίου, διοξειδίου του ζιρκονίου). Από τα αποτελέσματα επιλέχθηκε σαν ιδανική θερμοκρασία οι 90 οC για 24 ώρες. Σε αυτές τις επιστρώσεις προστέθηκαν τα νανοδοχεία Ce-Ti πληρωμένα με 8-HQ ή 2-MB σε διάφορες περιεκτικότητες. Η παρουσία νανοδοχείων πληρωμένα με αναστολείς διάβρωσης κατάφερε να ενισχύσει την προστασία από τα διάβρωση. Από την EIS παρατηρείται η εμφάνιση μιας ακόμη χρονικής σταθεράς που αντιστοιχεί στην προστασία φραγμού στις επιστρώσεις sol-gel. Τα νανοδοχεία που συντέθηκαν όχι μόνο ενίσχυσαν το δίκτυο της επίστρωσης αλλά απελευθέρωσαν τον αναστολέα διάβρωσης που ήταν πληρωμένα όταν ήρθαν σε συνθήκες διάβρωσης. Αυτή η παρατεταμένη απελευθέρωση παρέχει προστασία από τη διάβρωση του κράματος αλουμινίου 2024-Τ3 που διαρκεί. / This project was carried out within the European program "MULTIPROTECT", NMP3-CT-2005-011783 involving 31 laboratories from Europe. This program was extended for another four years with a new program FP7 with the short title "MUST". The program aims to replace the existing technology of metal protection against corrosion coatings containing hexavalent chromium, with new methods that use environmentally friendly materials. The aluminum alloy 2024 - T3 is used in advanced technology applications requiring high strength and low weight, but because of the alloy elements, which explains the increase in mechanical properties, is vulnerable to corrosion, so the need to find protective coatings friendly to the environment is imperative. One of the alternative technologies which are evolved in the Sol-Gel laboratory is the composition of sol-gel electrochemical and chemical coatings improved by the addition of nanocontainers loaded with corrosion inhibitor. This work is structured in two parts. The first part concerns with the theoretical presentation of corrosion and issues relating to the electrochemical nature such as the electric double-layer , the potentials of the electrodes and the Butler-Volmer equation. Moreover the properties of aluminum and its alloys and aluminium corrosion types are discussed. The sol-gel method is analyzed as well. Concluding the theoretical part, the characterization methods that were used are described. These are electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), the potentiodynamic polarization, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX), the Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TG) and differential thermal analysis (DTA), BET, infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray spectroscopy(XRD). The second part deals with the experimental procedures divided into two sections. First, the synthesis and study of Ce-To nanocontainers oxide loaded with corrosion inhibitors. The mechanism of corrosion protection of the inhibitors (cerium nitrate, 2-mercaptobenzothiazole and 8-Hydroxyquinoline) is described. The procedure followed for the synthesis of titanium/cerium oxide nanocontainers can be divided into three steps. Initially the synthesis of positively charged polystyrene (PS) then followed by coating of these spheres and finally the calcinations. After these all that remains is the loading of these nanocontainers under high vacuum. The morphology and composition of the nanocontainers as well as the release of corrosion inhibitors was studied. The second section of the experimental part is the synthesis and study of ORMOSIL coatings. These coatings were synthesized by electrodeposition, a novel technic for creating sol-gel coatings and the dip-coating method (one or four dips), a classic method of making the coatings selected in comparison with the first method. 3-Glycidoxypropyl-trimethoxysilane (GPTMS), Diethoxy-dimethylsilane (DEDMOS) and methyl-trimethoxy-silane (TMOMS) were used as precursors. As GPTMS coatings provided the best corrosion protection it was chosen for further study. To improve the coatings various parameters, such as concentration of the electrolyte, the time of electrochemical deposition, the removal speed from the solution during the dip-coating method, time and temperature of drying, the addition of nanoparticles (cerium oxide, cerium -molybdenum, zirconium oxide) were studied. The results showed that the ideal drying temperature was 90 οC for 24 hours. Ce-Ti nanocotainers loaded with 8-HQ or 2-MB were added into these coatings with different concetratoins. The presence of the nanocontainers loaded with corrosion inhibitors enforced the corrosion protection. EIS results witness the appearance of another time constant corresponding to the barrier effect of the sol-gel coatings. Nanocontainers not only enforced the sol-gel network but also released the corrosion inhibitor when corrosion starts. This continuous release provides extended protection against corrosion of aluminum alloy 2024-T3.

Σκοπός της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής είναι η σύνθεση, ο χαρακτηρισμός και η βιολογική αξιολόγηση τροποποιημένων πολυλειτουργικών νανοπεριεκτών (ΠΝΠ) ως συστημάτων μεταφοράς φαρμάκων (ΣΜΦ), με άμεση εφαρμογή στη θεραπεία του καρκίνου του μαστού και του προστάτη. Με τον όρο νανοπεριέκτες (ΝΠ) εννοούμε τα σωματίδια τα οποία βρίσκονται στην κλίμακα του νανομέτρου και κυμαίνονται σε διαστάσεις από περίπου 1nm έως και 100 nm. Ο όρος πολυλειτουργικά αναφέρεται στις ιδιότητες αυτών των νανοδομών και πιο συγκεκριμένα στο πως μεταβάλλονται οι ιδιότητες αυτών όταν υπάρχει επίδραση εξωτερικών παραγόντων όπως θερμοκρασία, pH, όξειδο-αναγωγικό περιβάλλον και μεταβαλλόμενο μαγνητικό πεδίο. Για την παρασκευή των πολυμερικών νανοπεριεκτών χρησιμοποιήθηκαν διάφορα είδη πολυμερισμών όπως, πολυμερισμός γαλακτώματος μέσω ριζών, πολυμερισμός σπόρου (seed), πολυμερισμός μεταφοράς ατόμου με ρίζες, πολυμερισμός διασποράς και πολυμερισμός μέσω απόσταξης-καταβύθισης. Οι διάφορες ευαισθησίες στα ΝΣ προστέθηκαν μέσω συμπολυμερισμού διαφόρων μονομερών τα οποία παρουσιάζουν τις προαναφερθείσες ιδιότητες. Κάποια από τα μονομερή τα οποία χρησιμοποιήθηκαν, όπως το υδρόξυ προπυλικό μεθακρυλαμίδιο (HPMA) το οποίο παρουσιάζει ευαισθησία στη μεταβολή της θερμοκρασίας και το 3-Μεθυλ-N-(2-((2-(3-οξοβουταναμιδο)εθυλ) δισουλαφανυλ)εθυλ)βουτ-3-εναμίδιο (Disulfide) το οποίο παρουσιάζει ευαισθησία στις μεταβολές του όξειδο-αναγωγικού περιβάλλοντος συνετέθησαν στο εργαστήριο, ενώ τα υπόλοιπα ήταν εμπορικά διαθέσιμα. Το κύριο μονομερές το οποίο χρησιμοποιήθηκε στους πολυμερισμούς είναι ο Μεθακρυλικός Μεθυλεστέρας (MMA) το οποίο είναι μη τοξικό και κατά τον πολυμερισμό του δημιουργεί σφαιρικές δομές συγκεκριμένου μεγέθους (νανοσφαίρες). Με τη χρήση του συγκεκριμένου μονομερούς συνετέθησαν συμπολυμερή, τα οποία είναι ευαίσθητα στη θερμοκρασία, στο pH και στο όξειδο-αναγωγικό περιβάλλον ή σε συνδυασμό των παραγόντων αυτών. Οι πολυμερικές νανοσφαίρες-νανοπεριέκτες οι οποίες συνετέθησαν είναι κενές στο εσωτερικό τους, ή είναι της μορφής πυρήνας-κέλυφος, όπου το κέλυφος περιέχει τα μονομερή με τις επιθυμητές ευαισθησίες. Η κοιλότητα η οποία δημιουργείται στο εσωτερικό των νανοσφαιρών, σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις, έχει ως σκοπό τον εγκλωβισμό φαρμακευτικών ουσιών. Τα φαρμακευτικά μόρια τα οποία χρησιμοποιούνται στην παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή, είτε στο εσωτερικό των νανοσφαιρών είτε προσδεδεμένα στην επιφάνεια αυτών, είναι η Δοξορουβικίνη (Doxorubicin) και η Δαουνοροβικίνη (Daunorubicin). Η επαγωγή των μαγνητικών ιδιοτήτων στους νανοπεριέκτες πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη σύνθεση μαγνητικών νανοσωματιδίων (ΜΝΣ) τα οποία παρασκευάστηκαν πάνω στην επιφάνειά τους. Η χρήση ενός εναλλασσόμενου μαγνητικού πεδίου αυξάνει τοπικά τη θερμοκρασία με αποτέλεσμα, αφενός να διευκολύνεται η τοπική απελευθέρωση της εγκλωβισμένης φαρμακευτικής ουσίας και αφετέρου, εξαιτίας της υψηλής θερμοκρασίας που αναπτύσσεται τοπικά, να οδηγείται το καρκινικό κύτταρο σε απόπτωση (προγραμματισμένος κυτταρικός θάνατος). Για το χαρακτηρισμό των νανοπεριεκτών χρησιμοποιήθηκε μία πληθώρα τεχνικών. Για το μορφολογικό χαρακτηρισμό χρησιμοποιήθηκε η ηλεκτρονική μικροσκοπία σάρωσης και διέλευσης, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) και Transmission Electron Microscopy (ΤΕΜ) αντίστοιχα, για το δομικό, η φασματοσκοπία υπερύθρου (FT-IR), η φασματοσκοπία Raman, η φασματοσκοπία πυρηνικού μαγνητικού συντονισμού (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, NMR) και η τεχνική περίθλασης ακτίνων-Χ, ενώ για τη μελέτη των μαγνητικών ιδιοτήτων χρησιμοποιήθηκε η φασματοσκοπία δονούμενου δείγματος Vibrating Sample Magnetometry, VSM). Επίσης χρησιμοποιήθηκαν η τεχνική της δυναμικής σκέδασης φωτός (Dynamic Light Scattering, DLS) η οποία έδωσε πληροφορίες για τις ιδιότητες και τη συμπεριφορά των νανοπεριεκτών μέσα στο διάλυμα, καθώς επίσης και η φασματοσκοπία ορατού-υπεριώδους (Ultra Violet-Visible, UV-VIS), μέσω της οποίας έγινε μελέτη του εγκλωβισμού και της απελευθέρωσης των χρησιμοποιούμενων φαρμάκων από τις νανoσφαίρες. Τέλος, πραγματοποιήθηκαν μελέτες υπερθερμίας με τη βοήθεια ενός εξωτερικού εναλλασσόμενου μαγνητικού πεδίου. / The aim of this thesis is the synthesis, characterization and biological evaluation of modified multifunctional nanoparticles (MMNs) as drug delivery systems (DDS, with immediate effect in the treatment of breast and prostate cancer. The term nanoparticles (NPs) refer to the particles which are in the nanometer scale and range in size, from about 1nm to and 100 nm. The term multifunctional refers to the properties of these nanostructures and more particularly to the way that change their properties when external factors such as temperature, pH, redox environment and alternating magnetic field are applied. For the preparation of polymeric nanoparticles, different types of polymerizations were used such as, emulsion polymerization, seed polymerization, atom transfer radical polymerization, dispersion polymerization and polymerization through distillation-precipitation process. The different sensitivities were added via copolymerization of different monomers which exhibit the aforementioned properties. Some of the monomers used like, N-(-2-HydroxyPropyl) Methacrylamide (HPMA), which is sensitive to temperature changes and N,N'-(disulfanediylbis(ethane-2,1-diyl))bis(2-methylacrylamide) (Disulfide) which is sensitive to changes in the redox environment, were synthesized in the laboratory, while the rest, were commercially available. The primary monomer, used in the polymerizations, was Methyl Methacrylate (MMA) which is non-toxic and in through to its polymerization creates spherical structures of certain size (nanospheres). By using the specific monomer, copolymers, which are sensitive to temperature, pH and redox environment or a combination of these factors, were synthesized. The synthesized polymeric nanospheres-nanocontainers, are either hollow inside, or form core-shell structures, where the shell contains the monomers with the desired sensitivity. The cavity which is created inside the nanospheres, in some cases, is intended to entrap pharmaceutical substances. The drug molecules used in this thesis, either within or tethered to the surface of the nanospheres are, Doxorubicin (DOX) and Daunorubicin (DNR). The induction of the magnetic properties in nanocontainers was performed by the synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), prepared on their surface. The use of an alternating magnetic field increases the temperature locally resulting on one hand to facilitate local release of the entrapped drug, and on the other hand, because of the high temperatures developed locally, to lead the tumor cell to apoptosis (programmed cell death). For the characterization of nanoparticles a variety of techniques were used. For the morphological characterization, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) were used while for the structural characterization, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Raman Spectroscopy, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and X-ray diffraction Spectroscopy were used. Magnetic properties were studied by Vibrating Sample Magnetometry (VSM). The Dynamic Light Scattering technique (DLS) was also used in order to get information about the properties and behavior of nanoparticles in solution and Ultra Violet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-VIS), gave information about Loading and Release of the drugs used in nanocontainers. Hyperthermia measurements were carried out by using an external alternating magnetic field.

The demand for multifunctional nanocontainers possessing both recognition ability and responsive nature is increasing greatly because of their high potential in various biomedical applications. The engineering of such smart nanovesicles is useful to enhance the efficiency of many therapeutic and diagnostic tools that have the applicability in targeted drug delivery systems as well as designing sensing devices or conducting selective reactions as nanoreactors in the scope of nanobiotechnology. For this purpose, this study demonstrates the formation of multifunctional and stimuli-responsive polymersomes comprising various abilities including pH and light sensitivity as well as many reactive groups with sufficient accessibility to be used as smart and recognitive nanocontainers. The fabrication included several steps starting from the synthesis of azide and adamantane terminated block copolymers, which were then self-assembled to prepare the polymersomes with the corresponding functional groups for the subsequent post-conjugations at the vesicle periphery. The accessible and sufficiently reactive groups were quantitatively proven when UV and IR cleavable NVOC protected amino groups as well as β-cyclodextrin molecules were conjugated to the pre-formed polymersomes through click chemistry and strong host-guest complexations. The gained light responsivity with the aid of successful NVOC attachment enabled further selective photochemical reactions triggered either by UV or NIR light leading to liberated amine groups on the polymersome surface. Therein, these released amino groups were further conjugated with a model fluorescent compound as mimicking the attachment of biorecognition elements to see the direct picture of the applicability. To realize this concept in a more localized and selective way as well as to avoid the possible side effects of UV light, the NIR-light induced photochemical reactions and further dye coupling were performed when polymersomes were immobilized onto solid substrates. This fixation was achieved by adapting the host-guest chemistry into this part and conjugating the adamantane decorated polymersomes onto β-cyclodextrin coated substrates. Several investigations including adhesion behavior, pH sensitivity and mechanical properties of the established multifunctional polymersomes under liquid phase have been performed. It has been found that the polymersome shape is highly dependent on the attractive forces of the substrate and needs to be optimized to avoid the flattening of the vesicles. For these optimization steps, different conditions were investigated including the decrease of cyclodextrin amount and additional surface passivation with PEG molecules on the solid substrates. Besides, the calculated Young’s and bending modulus of the polymersome membrane from AFM measurements showed a robust but still flexible “breathable” membrane which is an important criterion for the applicability of these smart and stable vesicles. In addition, the hosting ability as well as diffusion limits and sufficient membrane permeability of the polymersomes were observed by encapsulating gold nanoparticles as a smart cargo and doxorubicin molecules as an anticancer drug. In conclusion, the established multifunctional polymersomes are highly versatile and thus present new opportunities in the design of targeted and selective recognition systems which is highly interesting for various applications including development of microsystem devices, design of chemo/biosensors, and also for conducting enhanced, combined therapy in the field of drug delivery.

The demand for multifunctional nanocontainers possessing both recognition ability and responsive nature is increasing greatly because of their high potential in various biomedical applications. The engineering of such smart nanovesicles is useful to enhance the efficiency of many therapeutic and diagnostic tools that have the applicability in targeted drug delivery systems as well as designing sensing devices or conducting selective reactions as nanoreactors in the scope of nanobiotechnology. For this purpose, this study demonstrates the formation of multifunctional and stimuli-responsive polymersomes comprising various abilities including pH and light sensitivity as well as many reactive groups with sufficient accessibility to be used as smart and recognitive nanocontainers. The fabrication included several steps starting from the synthesis of azide and adamantane terminated block copolymers, which were then self-assembled to prepare the polymersomes with the corresponding functional groups for the subsequent post-conjugations at the vesicle periphery. The accessible and sufficiently reactive groups were quantitatively proven when UV and IR cleavable NVOC protected amino groups as well as β-cyclodextrin molecules were conjugated to the pre-formed polymersomes through click chemistry and strong host-guest complexations. The gained light responsivity with the aid of successful NVOC attachment enabled further selective photochemical reactions triggered either by UV or NIR light leading to liberated amine groups on the polymersome surface. Therein, these released amino groups were further conjugated with a model fluorescent compound as mimicking the attachment of biorecognition elements to see the direct picture of the applicability. To realize this concept in a more localized and selective way as well as to avoid the possible side effects of UV light, the NIR-light induced photochemical reactions and further dye coupling were performed when polymersomes were immobilized onto solid substrates. This fixation was achieved by adapting the host-guest chemistry into this part and conjugating the adamantane decorated polymersomes onto β-cyclodextrin coated substrates. Several investigations including adhesion behavior, pH sensitivity and mechanical properties of the established multifunctional polymersomes under liquid phase have been performed. It has been found that the polymersome shape is highly dependent on the attractive forces of the substrate and needs to be optimized to avoid the flattening of the vesicles. For these optimization steps, different conditions were investigated including the decrease of cyclodextrin amount and additional surface passivation with PEG molecules on the solid substrates. Besides, the calculated Young’s and bending modulus of the polymersome membrane from AFM measurements showed a robust but still flexible “breathable” membrane which is an important criterion for the applicability of these smart and stable vesicles. In addition, the hosting ability as well as diffusion limits and sufficient membrane permeability of the polymersomes were observed by encapsulating gold nanoparticles as a smart cargo and doxorubicin molecules as an anticancer drug. In conclusion, the established multifunctional polymersomes are highly versatile and thus present new opportunities in the design of targeted and selective recognition systems which is highly interesting for various applications including development of microsystem devices, design of chemo/biosensors, and also for conducting enhanced, combined therapy in the field of drug delivery.