Because of global economic influence and the prevalence of internet technology, the new e-commerce market gradually takes form. The more e-commerce grows the more e-negotiation activities increase. In the meanwhile, growing access to the worldwide has increased the amount of international, cross-cultural e-commerce negotiations conducted online. Due to increasing probability of inter-cultural factors in e-negotiation, understanding strategies over e-negotiations and discovering the impact of culture on strategies of e-negotiations become increasingly important. The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of different cultures on strategies of dyadic e-negotiations and to investigate the difference of strategy both in intra- and inter-cultural e-negotiation. Going to more detailed, this study further examines how Eastern and Western negotiators differ from each other in terms of their strategic adjustments. In order to have more comprehensive understanding of the impact of culture on the actual negotiation strategic behaviors in negotiation processes, we apply content analysis, which is more thorough than the questionnaire in terms of qualitative criteria. According to the result of this study, there are four major propositions: firstly, there are differences between intra- and inter-culture e-negotiation; secondly, the negotiation behavior of Easterners in inter-cultural negotiations will be different from that in intra-cultural negotiations; thirdly, the negotiation behavior of Westerners in inter-cultural negotiations will be different from that in intra-cultural negotiations; and finally, inter-cultural negotiation consistently has more ¡§distributive information¡¨ behavior in e-negotiations. These propositions can be analyzed from further viewpoints or conscientious experimentations in the future.

Research into negotiation systems has primarily focused on those for e-commerce and electronic markets, where quantitative values such as prices are key to what is being negotiated. However, there is a lack of research into tool support for complex real-life negotiations of documents that contain large amounts of textual (qualitative) clauses. Examples of such text-based agreements include international trade and climate-change treaties, as well as labor-management collective agreements. Our goal is to improve the state of the art in textual negotiation technology, so it can be applied to such agreements and their negotiations. In particular, we want to be able to develop technology that can facilitate the delicate give-and-take involving proposed changes, positions, rationale exchange, partial resolutions to disagreements, tracking of notes taken by the negotiators, as well as the ability to search and compare all of the above to facilitate negotiations. We posit that there would be significant societal benefit from the hyper-local to the international level if better technology was available. We performed literature reviews of existing negotiation systems and systems for representing legal documents to study what has been done in this domain. We also performed a grounded theory study based on interviews with people that have participated in real-life negotiations. An end-user's survey of negotiation systems was also conducted and analyzed. We used the results from the literature review, grounded theory and survey analysis, as the basis for a subsequent phase of design-science research in which we developed use cases, requirements and a comprehensive metamodel for qualitative negotiation tools, as well as a prototype negotiation tool.

Title: An essay based on the “Big Five” theory. The purpose of this essay is to examine and analyze how different personality traits relate to different phases and strategies of negotiation.   Level: Final assignment for a Bachelor Degree in Business Administration    Authors: Kamila Crafoord and Malin Larsson   Supervisor: Jonas Kågström    Date: 2019 – June   Aim: The aim of this essay is to examine and analyze how different personality traits relate to the different phases and strategies of negotiation.   Method: We have used a quantitative research method, based on a deductive approach. The data were obtained via a questionnaire, subsequently analyzed in the statistical programme “Jamovi”, using descriptive analysis, reliability analysis and factor analysis. The respondents were students of business administration at Högskolan i Gävle.   Results & Conclusions: The results show that the personality traits ”openness”, “conscientiousness” and ”agreeableness” are recurrent in the pre-bargaining as well as in the bargaining phase. “Conscientiousness” is linked to distributive strategies. The traits “agreeableness” and “openness” are associated with integrative strategies. We have made new findings concerning “openness” in particular, which is prominent in both the initial phase and the negotiation phase.   Contribution of the thesis: The study shows that certain personality types have a greater penetration power in different phases of negotiation. This knowledge can be useful, for example when putting together a negotiation team, where a dividing up of negotiators can be done based on the negotiation phases. Thus, the individual strengths of the team are used in the best possible way. The study has not been conducted in a specific line of business, and the results may be used in many situations where negotiations take place.   Suggestions for future research: The number of respondents in this study is limited. We believe that a more comprehensive study could contribute to a more in-depth knowledge concerning different lines of trade. In order to contribute to new knowledge of negotiation and its phases, it would be fruitful to compare senior negotiators to less experienced ones (students) within the field of Business Economics. It would also be interesting to stage negotiations with a group of participants, and compare their self-assessed views through a BFI-44 to the actual measured results of the negotiations.   Keywords: “negotiation”, “negotiation phases”, “initial phase”, “pre negotiation”, “bargaining phase”, “distributive”, “integrative”, “The Big Five”, “personality traits”, “individual differences”. / Titel: En studie baserad på femfaktorteorin i relation till förhandlingsfaser och -strategier.   Nivå: Examensarbete på Grundnivå (kandidatexamen) i ämnet företagsekonomi   Författare: Kamila Crafoord och Malin Larsson   Handledare: Jonas Kågström    Datum: 2019 - juni    Syfte: Studien avser att analysera hur olika personlighetsdrag förhåller sig till förhandlingsfaser och strategier.   Metod: Studien utgår från en kvantitativ metod med utgångspunkt i ett deduktivt förhållningssätt. Data har samlats in genom en enkätundersökning och har bearbetats i statistikprogrammet Jamovi med deskriptivanalys, reliabilitetsanalys och faktoranalyser. Vi har vänt oss till studenter i företagsekonomi på Högskolan i Gävle.   Resultat & slutsats: Resultatet visar att personlighetsdragen ”openness”, ”conscientiousness” och ”agreeableness” är återkommande både i den initiala fasen och förhandlingsfasen. ”Conscientiousness” kan kopplas samman med distributiva strategier och ”agreeableness” och ”openness” kan kopplas samman med integrativa strategi. Vi har gjort nya fynd gällande att ”openness” är framträdande inom den initiala fasen och förhandlingsfasen. Examensarbetets bidrag: Studien visar att vissa personlighetstyper har en mer optimal genomslagskraft i olika faser. Dessa kunskaper är bra att nyttja och kan exempelvis gå att implementera på ett förhandlingsteam, där en uppdelning av förhandlare kan göras utefter de båda förhandlingsfaserna. På så sätt nyttjas de styrkor som finns inom teamet på bästa sätt. Studien har inte utförts i en specifik bransch och resultaten kan användas i de många situationer där förhandlingar äger rum.   Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Studiens respondenter har varit begränsade i antalet, att utföra en mer omfattande undersökning tror vi skulle bidra till en fördjupad kunskap inom olika branscher.För att kunna bidra till ökad kunskap inom förhandling och dess faser skulle en jämförelse mellan erfarna förhandlare gentemot studenter inom företagsekonomi vara givande. Det skulle även vara intressant att låta en experimentgrupp utföra förhandlingar och låta dem genomföra en BFI-44. Det skulle möjliggöra att jämföra deras självskattade uppfattning baserat på BFI-44 med resultatet av förhandlingarna.

<p>PROBLEM: Finns det, trots vidden av situationer där förhandlingar kan uppkomma, raden av potentiella förhandlingssituationer och inblandade parter några gemensamma aspekter eller nämnare som alltid verkar finnas där när parterna upplever att en förhandling i kris är lyckad?</p><p>SYFTE: Syftet med denna uppsats är att beskriva vilka beståndsdelar en lyckad förhandling i kris består av.</p><p>METOD: Uppsatsens vetenskapliga ansats är i huvudsak fenomenologi.</p><p>RESULTAT: Essensen i upplevelsen av en lyckad förhandling i kris utgörs av graden av förberedelse, att motparten känner ett förtroende för representanten, att representanten agerat sakligt i bemärkelse att denne stöder sig på fakta, samt att en hög grad av målkongruens mellan parterna uppnås.</p> / <p>PROBLEM: Is there, despite the fact that the scope in which negotiations may occur, the heterogeneity of negotiation situations and involved parties, any common denominators which tends to be present, when the parties have the experience of a successful crisis negotiation?</p><p>PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to describe how a successful crisis negotiation is constituted.</p><p>METHOD: This thesis is mainly, as a consequence of the intention of studying human experience, based upon phenomenology.</p><p>RESULTS: The essence of the experience of a successful crisis negotiation is composed of four elements: the level of preparation, matter-of-factness, the capability of inspire trust, and goal congruency between the parties.</p>

PROBLEM: Finns det, trots vidden av situationer där förhandlingar kan uppkomma, raden av potentiella förhandlingssituationer och inblandade parter några gemensamma aspekter eller nämnare som alltid verkar finnas där när parterna upplever att en förhandling i kris är lyckad? SYFTE: Syftet med denna uppsats är att beskriva vilka beståndsdelar en lyckad förhandling i kris består av. METOD: Uppsatsens vetenskapliga ansats är i huvudsak fenomenologi. RESULTAT: Essensen i upplevelsen av en lyckad förhandling i kris utgörs av graden av förberedelse, att motparten känner ett förtroende för representanten, att representanten agerat sakligt i bemärkelse att denne stöder sig på fakta, samt att en hög grad av målkongruens mellan parterna uppnås. / PROBLEM: Is there, despite the fact that the scope in which negotiations may occur, the heterogeneity of negotiation situations and involved parties, any common denominators which tends to be present, when the parties have the experience of a successful crisis negotiation? PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to describe how a successful crisis negotiation is constituted. METHOD: This thesis is mainly, as a consequence of the intention of studying human experience, based upon phenomenology. RESULTS: The essence of the experience of a successful crisis negotiation is composed of four elements: the level of preparation, matter-of-factness, the capability of inspire trust, and goal congruency between the parties.

Using grounded theory methodology, six intensive care patients were interviewed regarding their perceptions of their own needs, concerns and wants and how nurses responded to those. Each patient was interviewed three times to detect any change in responses during the hospitalization. A theme of patient-nurse negotiation emerged. Patients came into the health care setting with a "generative source," the issues and beliefs they had regarding health-care and nurses in general. This affected patients' definition of themselves, their situation, the caregiver, their relationship with the caregiver, and their own needs and expectations. When a patient's definitions of self or situation varied form the nurse's, negotiation would occur. Two main categories of negotiation were used by both patient and nurse: Personal knowledge & Strategies. If negotiation failed to bring consensus, resulting actions were negative feelings and dissatisfaction, and a sense of vulnerability for the patient. This in turn impacted negatively on the patient's generative source and definitions. As the patient progressed through the hospital system toward discharge, the greatest changes were noted in how they defined themselves and the caregiver, and in the style of negotiation they used.

Discussions via electronic mail are becoming commonplace to support decision-making and coordinating activities. Users of these technologies are usually dispersed either in a geographical and/or a temporal sense. Thus, unlike participants in face-to-face meetings, participants in electronic text discussions cannot speak to each other nor can they see each other. Unfortunately, few guidelines exist which identify the tasks for which electronic text and face-to-face meetings are effective. This study examines how communication via electronic text impacts the processes and outcomes of negotiation in dyads. Electronic and face-to-face discussions are characterized by the efficiency of the communication media supported by each, and by media richness, the ability of those media to convey social and emotional information. These communication media will be compared and contrasted on the ability of each to support a negotiation task which requires two participants to simultaneously solve a logical problem and resolve conflicting objectives. In a controlled laboratory experiment, pairs of subjects with either a competitive or an integrative bargaining orientation completed the Bilateral Monopoly Task in one of four communication media (text-only, text-plus-visual-access, audio-only, audio-plus-visual-access). As hypothesized, an integrative bargaining orientation and/or the relatively efficient audio mode of communication lead to a higher joint outcome. In addition, visual access (which conveys a rich array of social and emotional information) resulted in a higher joint outcome for subjects with integrative bargaining orientations, but lower joint outcomes for those with competitive orientations. The results indicate that bargaining orientation and communication medium have a marked impact on negotiation processes and outcomes. An efficient communication media is required to closely examine negotiation issues, and to reduce uncertainty about the constraints inherent to the negotiation task itself. Media richness strongly moderates the effect of bargaining orientation. A rich media enhances both the predisposition of an integrative bargainer to trust, and a competitive bargainer to dominate, the other party. Uncertainty regarding the logical structure of the task was reduced only via verbal communication, while equivocality regarding the bargaining orientation of the negotiating parties was reduced only via visual communication.

All policies, initiatives and ideas of accession countries are directed towards the European Union. With the safe development and enlargement, European Union is the world's center of peace and stability. For Montenegro, as a small open economy in the Western Balkans, which tends to become part of a unique political, economic and cultural market, entrance into the EU is a strategic goal from independence gained in 2006. Within the framework of the process of European integration, Montenegro unifies all resources that are still significantly underdeveloped thus creating better options for their absorption and further development. In accordance with the previous, the key issues that are analyzed in this paper are the following: In what way and at what "speed" is Montenegro working on the process of EU integration? With what kind of problems and challenges Montenegro is facing? What methods in the context of European integration Montenegro is using? To what extent are the solutions optimal and relevant for Montenegro? Key words: integration, candidate, negotiation, accession, Montenegro, European Union

All policies, initiatives and ideas of accession countries are directed towards the European Union. With the safe development and enlargement, European Union is the world's center of peace and stability. For Montenegro, as a small open economy in the Western Balkans, which tends to become part of a unique political, economic and cultural market, entrance into the EU is a strategic goal from independence gained in 2006. Within the framework of the process of European integration, Montenegro unifies all resources that are still significantly underdeveloped thus creating better options for their absorption and further development. In accordance with the previous, the key issues that are analyzed in this paper are the following: In what way and at what "speed" is Montenegro working on the process of EU integration? With what kind of problems and challenges Montenegro is facing? What methods in the context of European integration Montenegro is using? To what extent are the solutions optimal and relevant for Montenegro? Key words: integration, candidate, negotiation, accession, Montenegro, European Union

Magister Artium - MA / Globalization has evidently led to an increase in the flow of immigrants across the world, a fact that has and continues to play a significant role in the development of studies on immigration, immigration patterns and the psycho-social struggles that immigrants face; of which identity negotiation in the new context is included. A number of works have been done on the identity negotiation and identity-forming process of immigrant youth. This study attempts to highlight, rather specifically, the unique challenges that 1.5 generation immigrant youth have in forming their identities. Rumbaut coined the term “one-and-a-half generation” to describe “children of Cuban exiles who were born in Cuba but have come of age in the United States” (1976:8). Thus the 1.5 generation immigrant youth constitutes children who were born in their country of origin but was raised and received the education and important experiences in the host country. Hence, the issue of identity becomes important for adolescents such as the 1.5 generation growing up in Diasporic settings. How they come to define who they are, their place in the world and others’ perception of them have significant implications for their successful integration into their new societies (Ogbuagu, 2013). This study takes a socio-cultural approach to investigating the identity negotiation and construction of 1.5 generation Congolese immigrant youth. Sociocultural linguistics refers to an interdisciplinary field which considers language as a sociocultural phenomenon; hence positioning identity as a phenomenon that is socially constructed through language and hence, performed within interaction and conversations.