The electrophysiological properties of somatic and dendritic membranes of CA1 pyramidal neurons were investigated using the rat in vitro hippocampal slice preparation. A comprehensive analysis of extracellular field potentials, current-source density (CSD) and intracellular activity has served to identify the site of origin of action potential (AP) discharge in CA1 pyramidal neurons. 1) Action potential discharge of CA1 pyramidal cells was evoked by suprathreshold stimulation of the alveus (antidromic) or afferent synaptic inputs in stratum oriens (SO) or stratum radiatum (SR). Laminar profiles of the "stimulus evoked" extracellular field potentials were recorded at 25µm intervals along the dendro-somatic axis of the pyramidal cell and a 1-dimensional CSD analysis applied. 2) The shortest latency population spike response and current sink was recorded in stratum pyramidale or the proximal stratum oriens, a region corresponding to somata and axon hillocks of CA1 pyramidal neurons. A biphasic positive/negative spike potential (current source/sink) was recorded in dendritic regions, with both components increasing in peak latency through the dendritic field with distance from the border of stratum pyramidale. 3) A comparative intracellular analysis of evoked activity in somatic and dendritic membranes revealed a basic similarity in the pattern of AP discharge at all levels of the dendro-somatic axis. Stimulation of the alveus, SO, or SR evoked a single spike while injection of depolarizing current evoked a repetitive train of spikes grouped for comparative purposes into three basic patterns of AP discharge. 4) Both current and stimulus evoked intracellular spikes displayed a progressive decline in amplitude and increase in halfwidth with distance from the border of stratum pyramidale. 5) The only consistent voltage threshold for intracellular spike discharge was found in the region of the cell body, with no apparent threshold for spike activation in dendritic locations. 6) Stimulus evoked intradendritic spikes were evoked beyond the peak of the population spike recorded in stratum pyramidale, and aligned with the biphasic extradendritic field potential shown through laminar profile analysis to conduct with increasing latency from the cell body layer. The evoked characteristics of action potential discharge in CA1 pyramidal cells are interpreted to indicate the initial generation of a spike in the region of the soma-axon hillock and a subsequent retrograde spike invasion of dendritic arborizations. / Medicine, Faculty of / Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Department of / Graduate

After dendrite transection, two primary injury current pathways may acount for cell death: (1) the lesion current at the site of injury and (2) the voltage sensitive calcium channels along the dendrite. Lesions were made with a laser microbeam in mouse spinal monolayer cell cultures. Polylysine was tried as a positively charged "molecular bandage" to block the lesion current. The calcium channel blockers, verapamil and nifedipine, were used to reduce the calcium channel current. Control toxicity curves were obtained for all three compounds. The results show that neither verapamil, nifedipine, nor polylysine (MW: 3,300) protect nerve cells after dendrite amputation 100 ptm from the soma. The data also indicate that these compounds do not slow the process of cell death after such physical trauma.

This work examines somatosensory processing in "giant" neurones of the medial pontomedullary reticular formation (PMRF) in the rat, with particular emphasis on the response to cutaneous thermal stimuli. Thermal test stimuli were employed as these were deemed to be more precisely quantifiable than other forms of cutaneous stimulation. Activity was recorded from 235 PMRF neurones in 94 female Long Evans rats (270 to 320 g) anaesthetised with urethane (1,25g/kg, i.p.). Rectal temperature was closely controlled at 38 ± 0,5°C. Standard stereotactic and extracellular recording techniques were employed. PMRF giant neurones were identified by their stereotactic location, large, stable spike amplitudes of long duration, responses to cutaneous mechanical stimuli and receptive field properties, and spontaneous discharge characteristics. Ramp, step and sine wave cutaneous thermal stimuli (35-48 °C) were applied to the glabrous skin on the hindpaw by means of a computer-controlled Peltier device. The location of the units was confirmed by subsequent histology. One hundred and eleven neurones were located in nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis (NPC), and 124 in nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis (NGC). Mechanical stimulation excited 188 of 235 (80%) PMRF neurones (ON-m cells), and inhibited 40 (17%, OFF-m cells). Seven cells (3%) had mosaic receptive fields of excitation and inhibition (complex responses, CX-m). Twenty-eight percent of neurones were responsive to both weak and intense stimuli (mixed neurones). The remainder (72%) responded only to intense mechanical stimulation of the skin (high threshold neurones). The (excitatory or inhibitory) response of the mixed neurones to intense stimuli was generally greater than to mild stimuli, Receptive fields ranged in size from restricted (hindlimbs only) to very extensive (covering the entire body surface). Neurones with small receptive fields were almost exclusively of the high threshold type, and tended to be located in NGC, while mixed neurones tended to have larger receptive fields, and were located predominantly in NPC. Some portion of the hind limbs were represented in the receptive fields of all but one of the neurones studied, while the tail and/ or trunk were represented in 77%, and the forelimbs and face in 28% of receptive fields. Most of the cells responding to cutaneous mechanical stimulation had bilateral (usually symmetric) receptive fields. Spontaneous (background) activity occurred in the absence of any deliberate sensory stimulation in 72% of PMRF neurones. The frequency of spontaneous discharge rates ranged from O to 47 spikes/ s. The coefficient of variation of the spontaneous discharge rate of a given neurone was generally less than 20% (range O to 85%). Of the 235 identified mechanosensitive PMRF neurones, 203 (86%) also responded to cutaneous thermal stimulation (43-48 °C) of the ipsilateral hind paw. Eighty percent of these responded with increased discharge rates (ON-t cells), and 20% were inhibited (OFF-t cells). The polarities of response of individual PMRF neurones to mechanical and thermal stimuli, and to repeated ipsilateral and contralateral thermal stimuli, did not differ significantly. Following transient thermal stimulation, spontaneous discharge rates largely returned to pre-stimulus levels. The thresholds of response to slow ramp (0,15°C/s) and stepped (2°C/s) thermal stimuli occurred both in the innocuous and noxious temperature ranges (below and above 42°C, respectively). The threshold temperatures showed large variability to repeated identical thermal stimuli. Despite the poor reproducibility of the threshold responses, the distribution of thresholds to thermal ramp stimuli was consistently bimodal, with peaks occurring at 39 and 43°C. The bimodality persisted even when the ipsilateral and contralateral data were pooled. The modes of these threshold distributions conform to the maximum discharge ranges for warm and noxious cutaneous receptors. Thus, it is likely that thermal input to individual PMRF neurones is derived from both types of receptors. The responses of PMRF neurones to repeated thermal stimuli were stable and reproducible with respect to magnitude and time course. The average (static) and maximum (dynamic) responses to thermal stimuli were generally small: for example, the mean of the average responses to ramp stimuli was 5,9 spikes/s ± 11,0 SD, (range -28 to 40 spikes/s), and the mean of the maximum responses was 9,3 spikes/s ± 16,1 SD, (range -46 to 65 spikes/s). The absolute change in firing rate of individual PMRF neurones, and of the population, increased monotonically as a function of the intensity of stepped cutaneous thermal stimuli in the range 40 to 48 °C. However, their resolution, based on their average and maximum responses, was poor. Incorporating the post-stimulus responses into the comparisons between different stimulus intensities marginally increased the resolution of these neurones. Thus, while the majority of PMRF neurones are able to distinguish innocuous from noxious stimuli, few are capable of encoding stimulus intensity within the noxious range (above 43 °C). The majority (70%) of PMRF neurones responded to sustained thermal stimuli with a slow increase or decrease to a new static discharge rate which was maintained with little or no adaptation. Latency to onset of response to stepped thermal stimuli varied from 1 to 50 seconds, and the time to maximal response between 5-60 seconds. Many PMRF neurones also showed marked after-discharge for periods of up to 5 minutes after removal of the stimulus. The thermal receptive fields of over 90% of PMRF neurones were large, incorporating at least both hindlimbs. The extensive receptive field sizes of individual PMRF neurones provides evidence against them having a role in stimulus location. The large number of PMRF neurones showing multimodal convergence, their small magnitude responses, their slow response times, and their large receptive fields strongly suggest that these neurones are not participating in classical sensory discrimination. Rather, they may function as stimulus detectors or alternatively play a role in associative processes.

No description available.

Neurons display exquisite specificity in synaptic connectivity, but we lack a complete under-standing of neuronal connectivity and the rules that govern it. A major impediment to addressing this question lies in the vast diversity of neurons, the small size and large number of synapses formed by any given neuron over a wide territory, and the need to study these connections in intact tissue. We therefore developed an image-based tool to assess synaptic specificity in tissue sections and dissociated culture. We focused on three interneuron subpopulations that target distinct subcellular regions of the post-synaptic cell: soma-targeting basket cells (BCs), axon initial segment (AlS)-targeting chandelier cells (ChCs), and distal dendrite-targeting somatostatin cells (SstCs). Using mouse dissociated cortical culture as a starting point, we built a machine learning (ML) based image processing and analysis pipeline to classify individual presynaptic boutons at scale. Supervised ML classification revealed similar subcellular targeting profiles for these interneuron populations in slice and culture, indicating that targeting is primarily regulated by cell intrinsic programs. We also observed a remarkable target-dependent laminar organization in vivo. An unsupervised ML analysis using the same input data not only identified the same three canonical targeting classes, but also revealed that these classes are comprised of multiple subpopulations. In slice, these synaptic subpopulations displayed distinct laminar or-ganization. In dissociated culture, two soma-targeting synaptic subpopulations mapped to target cells with different cellular profiles. The six dendrite-targeting synaptic subpopulations were found at increasing distances from target soma, suggesting molecularly distinct proximal, medial, and distal dendritic compartments in culture. Tracking subtype targeting across axonal branches of individual neurons indicated that SstCs and BCs utilize distinct targeting strategies in culture that accord with established findings in vivo. In sum, our synaptic analysis pipeline revealed novel synaptic subpopulations in interneurons. Further analysis uncovered novel aspects of interneuron synaptic biology that, remarkably, are retained in culture.

Thesis (PhD (Biomedical Sciences. Medical Physiology))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / The overall objective of this thesis is to provide additional data to assist clinicians and experimental neurologists alike in the quest for better understanding, more accurately diagnosing and more successfully treating patients suffering from Parkinson’s disease (PD). The general theme of the thesis is the interaction between certain environmental stimuli, including the exposure to adverse events during early central nervous system (CNS) development and the manifestation of elements of neurodegeneration, whether by means of neurochemical changes or expressed as a dysfunctional voluntary motor system. The first chapter provides a general introduction to the research theme of the thesis. This includes, in particular, a discussion on current understanding concerning the etiology and clinical profile of PD, the relative contribution made by genetic factors compared to environmental ones, and current treatment strategies for treating the disease. Mention is also made of the failure of these therapeutic applications for reversing or protecting against the disease, due to the side-effects associated with them. The material covered in chapter 1 provides the basis for the more complete discussion concerning these various aspects, contained in the chapters to follow. The overall aim was also to characterise the effects of commonly used toxin-induced animal models of PD, and the extent of vulnerability that the CNS displays towards them. The destruction of dopaminergic neurons following the administration of 6-OHDA at targeted points along the nigrostriatal tract is used extensively to model PD pathology in rats and is an established animal model of the disease. However, mature or even aged animals are mainly used in these studies, while the effects that the toxin might have on the developing CNS remain unclear. The study reported in chapter 4 aimed to elucidate some of 6-OHDA’s actions on the young adolescent (35 days-old) CNS by comparing the motor and biochemical effects of a unilateral infusion of the toxin into two anatomically distinct basal ganglia loci: The medial forebrain bundle (MFB) and the striatum. Animals were randomly assigned to receive either a direct delivery of 6-OHDA (12μg/4μl) into the MFB or an indirect injection, into the striatum. Although both lesion types were used, the MFB model is considered a more accurate portrayal of end-stage PD, while the striatum-model better reflects the long-term progressive pathology of the disease. The different lesions’ effects on motor function were determined by observing animal’s asymmetrical forelimb use to correct for weigh shifting during the vertical exploration of a cylindrical enclosure. Following the final behavioral assessment, the concentration of dopamine (DA) and DA metabolites remaining in the post-mortem brains were determined using 4 HPLC electrochemistry (HPLC-EC) and the levels compared between the two groups. The HPLC-EC results revealed a compensatory effect for DA production and DA turnover on the lesioned hemisphere side of the toxin-infused animal group. Thus, following 6-OHDA treatment, there appears to be extensive adaptive mechanisms in place within the remaining dopaminergic terminals that may be sufficient for maintaining relatively high extracellular and synaptic concentrations of DA. However, since substantial changes in motor-function were observed, it is suggested that the capacity of the remaining dopaminergic neurons to respond to increased functional demands may be limited. In addition, the behavioral results indicate that the distinct indices relating to different functional deficits depend on the lesioning of anatomically distinct structures along the nigrostrial tract. It has long been known that far fewer women are diagnosed with PD than men are. This seeming protection offered to females against degenerative disease of the CNS may relate to estrogen, although the hormone’s mechanism of action on the dopaminergic system is poorly defined. With an estimated 10-15 million women using oral contraceptives (OCs) in the United States alone, the aim of chapter 2 was to examine the evidence for a possible relationship between PD and the female reproductive hormone estrogen. A review of the current literature available on the topic was performed by consulting Medline, and by performing a search of the case-reports contained within the World Health Organization’s (WHO) International Drug Monitoring database, for possible PD-related symptoms that may arise from estrogen replacement therapy (ERT). The results, whilst conflicting, seem to suggest that estrogen protects women from obtaining the disease, or at least some features of it. Intensive research efforts are called for, with sufficient power to establish the relationship between ERT and the onset and development of parkinsonism. Chapter 3 reports on the results obtained from an experiment that subjected young Sprague-Dawley rats, 35 days of age, to a lower and a higher dose of 6-OHDA delivered to the MFB. Control rats received equivalent saline infusions. At 14 days post-surgery, the rats were evaluated for forelimb akinesia. For the higher dose of 6- OHDA the female rats were less impaired than males in making adjustment steps in response to a weight shift and in the vibrissae-evoked forelimb placing test. In addition, Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity was significantly higher for the female rats. Early gender differences in cell survival factors and/or other promoters of neuroplasticity may have contributed to the beneficial outcome seen in the females. For example, nerve growth factor (NGF) was found to be higher in the female rats following administration of the DA neurotoxin. It is unclear whether gonadal steroids are involved, and, if so, whether female hormones are protective or whether male hormones are prodegenerative. Determining the mechanisms for the improved outcome seen in the young female rats may lead to potential treatment strategies against PD. 5 Many studies have shown that early life stress may lead to impaired brain development, and may be a risk factor for developing psychiatric diseases, including clinical depression. However, few studies have investigated the impact that early stress may have on the onset and development of neurodegenerative disorders such as PD. The study reported on in chapter 5 conjointly subjected rat pups to a maternal separation (MS) paradigm that is a well characterised model of adverse early life events, and a unilateral, intrastriatal injection of 6- OHDA. The combined effects of these models on motor deficits and brain protein levels were investigated. Specifically, the animals were assessed for behavioral changes at 28 days postlesion with a battery of tests that are sensitive to the degree of DA loss sustained. The results show that animals that had been subjected to MS display poorer performance in the vibrissae and single-limb akinesia test compared to non-MS control animals (that had also been subjected to the toxin exposure). In addition, there was a significant increase in the loss of TH staining in MS rats compared to non-MS ones. The results from this study therefore suggest that exposure to adverse experiences during the early stages of life may contribute towards making dopaminergic neurons more susceptible to subsequent insults to the CNS occurring during mature stages of life. Therefore, taken together, early exposure to stress may predispose an individual towards the onset and development of neurodegenerative disease, which especially becomes a threat during the later stages of adult life. Moreover, within the framework of these characteristics, the capacity of a widely-used pharmacological agent (statins) was tested for possible future therapeutic application in PD (chapter 7). Although the precise cause of sporadic PD remains an enigma, evidence suggests that it may associate with defective activity of complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Mitochondrial DNA transmit and express this defect in host cells, resulting in increased oxygen free radical production, depressed antioxidant enzyme activities, and greater susceptibility to apoptotic cell death. Simvastatin is a member of the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (statins) group of drugs that are widely used for lowering cholesterol levels in patients who display elevated concentrations of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. The study aimed to investigate the effects that statin-treatment have on motor-function and at the mitochondrial-protein level, using rotenone, a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, as a rat-model of PD. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated either with simvastatin (6mg/day for 14 days) or with a placebo. Two different tests to assess motor function were used: The apomorphine-rotation test, and the vibrissae-elicited forelimb placement test. Following the drug administration protocol, the nigrostriatal tract was unilaterally lesioned with either rotenone (3 μg/4 μl) or, for the controls, were sham-operated by infusing the vehicle (DMSO:PEG) only. Five days later the rats were killed and a highly purified concentration of isolated mitochondria was prepared from the substantia nigra (SN) sections. 2- 6 Dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) with subsequent identification of the spots using electronspray ionization quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometrical (ESI-Q-TOF MS) was performed and the results BLAST-searched using bio-informatics tools for naming the identified peptides. The motor test results indicate that while unilateral rotenone causes behavioral asymmetries, treatment with simvastatin improved motor function relative to the rotenoneinduced ones. Mass Spectroscopy identified 23 mitochondrial proteins that differ significantly in protein expression (p < 0.05) following simvastatin treatment. The altered proteins were broadly classified according to their cellular function into 6 categories, with the majority involved in energy metabolism. This study effectively illustrated how neuroproteomics, with its sophisticated techniques and non-biased ability to quantify proteins, provides a methodology with which to study the changes in neurons associated with neurodegeneration. As an emerging tool for establishing disease-associated protein profiles, it also generates a greater understanding as to how these proteins interact and undergo post-translational modifications. Furthermore, due to the advances made in bioInformatics, insight is created concerning their functional characteristics. Chapter 4 summarises the most prominent proteomics techniques and discuss major advances made in the fast-growing field of neuroproteomics in PD. Ultimately, it is hoped that the application of this technology will lead towards a presymptomatic diagnosis of PD, and the identification of risk factors and new therapeutic targets at which pharmacological intervention can be aimed. The final chapter (chapter 8) provides a retrospective look at the academic work that had been performed for the purpose of this thesis, recaps on the main findings, and also highlights certain aspects of the project and provides relevant suggestions for future research. Lastly, the appendix provides a detailed overview of the methods followed for the experiments described in this thesis. It provides not only a comprehensive description of the techniques that had been followed, but provides information concerning the care taken with the animals (i.e. post-surgery) in order to control for the potential influence of experimental variables on the results.

by Cheng Wai Ming. / Thesis submitted in: October, 1998. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1999. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 54-68 (2nd gp.)). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.iv / ABSTRACT --- p.v / ABSTRACT (Chinese) --- p.vii / Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- LITERATURE REVIEW --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Ionotropic glutamate receptors --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- AMP A receptor --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.1.1 --- Structure of AMP A receptor --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.1.2 --- Electrophysiological properties of AMPA receptor --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.1.3 --- Pharmacology of AMPA receptors --- p.6 / Chapter 1.1.1.4 --- Kinetics of AMPA receptors --- p.8 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- NMDA receptor --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.2.1 --- Structure of NMDA receptor --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.2.2 --- Electrophysiological properties of NMDA receptor --- p.10 / Chapter 1.1.2.3 --- Pharmacology of NMDA receptor --- p.11 / Chapter 1.1.2.4 --- Kinetics of NMDA receptor --- p.12 / Chapter 1.2. --- The basal ganglia and the SNR --- p.12 / Chapter 1.3 --- Excitatory glutamatergic inputs on SNR --- p.16 / Chapter 1.4 --- Aim of study --- p.17 / Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- Electrophysiological properties of SNR neurones --- p.18 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.18 / Chapter 2.2 --- Methods --- p.19 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- In vitro slice preparation and maintenance --- p.19 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Whole-cell patch-clamp recording --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Solutions and drugs --- p.21 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Histological methods --- p.21 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Data analysis --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3 --- Results --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Passive membrane properties of SNR neurones --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Firing rate and action potential characteristics --- p.23 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Firing patterns --- p.23 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Weak hyperpolarization activated inward rectification --- p.24 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Slow aflerhyperpolarization --- p.25 / Chapter 2.3.6 --- Current-frequency relationship --- p.25 / Chapter 2.3.7 --- Morphology of labelled SNR neurones --- p.25 / Chapter 2.4 --- Discussion and conclusion --- p.26 / Chapter CHAPTER 3 --- AMPA and NMDA induced membrane responses --- p.30 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.30 / Chapter 3.2 --- Methods --- p.31 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- In vitro slice preparation and maintenance --- p.31 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Whole-cell patch-clamp recording --- p.31 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Solutions and drugs --- p.31 / Chapter 3.2.4 --- Drug application --- p.32 / Chapter 3.2.5 --- Immunocytochemistry --- p.32 / Chapter 3.2.6 --- Data analysis --- p.33 / Chapter 3.3 --- Results --- p.33 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- AMPA induced responses in SNR GABA neurones --- p.33 / Chapter 3.3.1.1 --- AMPA induced membrane depolarization --- p.33 / Chapter 3.3.1.2 --- AMPA induced membrane current --- p.34 / Chapter 3.3.1.3 --- Current-voltage relationship --- p.34 / Chapter 3.3.1.4 --- Effect of NBQX --- p.35 / Chapter 3.3.1.5 --- Effects of JSTX and spermine --- p.35 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- NMDA-induced response in SNR GABA neurones --- p.36 / Chapter 3.3.2.1 --- NMDA induced membrane depolarization --- p.36 / Chapter 3.3.2.2 --- NMDA induced membrane current --- p.36 / Chapter 3.3.2.3 --- APV blocked NMDA-induced current --- p.36 / Chapter 3.3.2.4 --- Effect of glycine on NMDA induced response --- p.37 / Chapter 3.3.2.5 --- Mg2+-sensitivity --- p.37 / Chapter 3.3.2.6 --- Current-voltage relationship --- p.38 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- GluR2 subunit immunostaining --- p.38 / Chapter 3.4 --- Discussion and conclusion --- p.39 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- AMPA receptors in SNR neurones --- p.39 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- NMDA receptors in SNR neurones --- p.41 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Functional significance --- p.41 / Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- Glutamate-mediated synaptic currents in SNR --- p.43 / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.43 / Chapter 4.2 --- Methods --- p.44 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- In vitro slice preparation and maintenance --- p.44 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Electrophysiological recordings --- p.44 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Electrical stimulation --- p.45 / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Solutions and drugs --- p.45 / Chapter 4.2.5 --- Data analysis --- p.46 / Chapter 4.3 --- Results --- p.46 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Characteristics of spontaneous EPSCs --- p.46 / Chapter 4.3.1.1 --- General characteristics --- p.46 / Chapter 4.3.1.2 --- Kinetics --- p.47 / Chapter 4.3.1.3 --- Pharmacology --- p.47 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Characteristics of evoked EPSCs --- p.48 / Chapter 4.3.2.1 --- General characteristics --- p.48 / Chapter 4.3.2.2 --- Pharmacological characterization --- p.49 / Chapter 4.3.2.3 --- Effects of bicuculline --- p.50 / Chapter 4.4 --- Discussion and conclusion --- p.50 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Excitatory transmission onto SNR neurones --- p.50 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Source of excitatory drive --- p.51 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- Interaction with GABA inputs --- p.52 / Chapter 4.4.4 --- Functional significance --- p.52 / REFERENCES --- p.54

Axon guidance receptors such as deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) contribute to the normal formation of neural circuits, and their mutations can be associated with neural defects. In humans, heterozygous mutations in have been linked to congenital mirror movements, which are involuntary movements on one side of the body that mirror voluntary movements of the opposite side. In mice, obvious hopping phenotypes have been reported for bi-allelic mutations, while heterozygous mutants have not been closely examined. We hypothesized that a detailed characterization of heterozygous mice may reveal impaired corticospinal and spinal functions. Anterograde tracing of the motor cortex revealed a normally projecting corticospinal tract, intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) evoked normal contralateral motor responses, and behavioral tests showed normal skilled forelimb coordination. Gait analyses also showed a normal locomotor pattern and rhythm in adult mice during treadmill locomotion, except for a decreased occurrence of out-of-phase walk and an increased duty cycle of the stance phase at slow walking speed. Neonatal isolated spinal cords had normal left-right and flexor-extensor coupling, along with normal locomotor pattern and rhythm, except for an increase in the flexor-related motoneuronal output. Although mice do not exhibit any obvious bilateral impairments like those in humans, they exhibit subtle motor deficits during neonatal and adult locomotion.

Cognitive processes in the human brain are mediated by complex interactions among distributed brain regions. The interaction between the hippocampus and neocortical regions is crucial for physiologic and pathologic long-term episodic memory processing in the brain. However, the network mechanisms of this hippocampal-cortical communication remain unclear. To address this issue, we first designed organic materials and conformable electronics to create integrated neural interface devices that increase the spatiotemporal resolution of electrophysiologic monitoring. These devices enabled acquisition of local field potentials and action potentials of individual cortical neurons from the surface of the human brain, enhancing the ability to investigate neural network mechanisms without breaching the tissue interface. Next, we employed these devices in tandem with hippocampal probes to analyze hippocampal-cortical interactions in the context of memory tasks in freely moving rodents. We determined that in the physiologic state, the spatial properties of cortical spindle oscillations predict the likelihood of coupling with hippocampal ripples and are modulated by memory demand. In the pathologic state, we showed that interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs), ubiquitous markers of epileptic networks, disrupt hippocampal-cortical coupling required for memory consolidation. These IEDs induce spindle oscillations in the synaptically connected cortex, producing prolonged, hypersynchronous neuronal spiking and expanding the brain territory capable of generating IEDs. Spatiotemporally targeted closed-loop electrical stimulation triggered on hippocampal IED occurrence eliminated the abnormal cortical activity patterns, preventing spread of the epileptic network and ameliorating long-term spatial memory deficits in rodents. Our findings provide new insights into mechanisms of physiologic and pathologic memory processing and offer novel approaches to therapies aimed at addressing distributed network dysfunction in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Epilepsy is characterized by the hyperexcitability of individual neurons and hyper synchronization of groups of neurons (networks). The acquired changes that take place at molecular, cellular and network levels are important for the induction and maintenance of epileptic activity in the brain. Epileptic activity is known to alter the intrinsic properties and signaling of neurons. Understanding acquired changes that cause epilepsy may lead to innovative strategies to prevent or cure this neurological disorder. Advances in in vitro electrophysiological techniques together with experimental models of epilepsy are indispensible tools to understand molecular, cellular and network mechanisms that underlie epileptiform activity. The aim of the study was to investigate the epileptiform activity induced alterations in Ca2+ dynamics in apical dendrites of hippocampal subicular pyramidal neurons in slices and changes in network properties of cultured hippocampal neurons. We have also made attempts to develop an in vitro model of epilepsy using organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. In the first part of the present study, investigations on the basic properties of dendritic Ca2+ signaling in subicular pyramidal neurons during epileptiform activity are described. Subiculum, a part of the hippocampal formation is present, adjacent to the CA1 subfield. It acts as a transition zone between the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. It receives inputs directly from the CA1 region, the entorhinal cortex, subcortical and other cortical areas. Several forms of evidences support the role of subiculum in temporal lobe epilepsy. Pronounced neuronal loss has been reported in various regions of the hippocampal formation (CA1 and CA3) leaving the subiculum generally intact in human epileptic tissue. It has been observed that epileptic activity is generated in subiculum in cases where the CA3 and CA1 regions are damaged or even absent. However, it is not clear how subicular neurons protect themselves from epileptic activity induced neuronal death. It is widely accepted that epileptiform activity induced neuronal damage is a result of an abnormally large influx of Ca2+ into neuronal compartments. In the present study, combined hippocampus / entorhinal cortical brain slices were exposed to zero Mg2+ + 4-amino pyridine artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) to generate spontaneous epileptiform discharges. Whole cell current-clamp recordings combined with Ca2+ imaging experiments (by incorporating Oregon green BAPTA-1 in the recording pipette) were performed on subicular pyramidal neurons to understand the changes in [Ca2+]i transients elicited in apical dendrites, in response to spontaneous epileptic discharges. To understand the changes occurring with respect to control, experiments were performed (in both control and in vitro epileptic conditions) where [Ca2+]i transients in dendrites were elicited by back propagating action potentials following somatic current injections. The results show clear distance-dependent changes in decay kinetics of [Ca2+]i transients (τdecay), without change in the amplitude of the [Ca2+]i transients, in distal parts (95–110 µm) compared to proximal segments (30–45 µm) of apical dendrites of subicular pyramidal neurons under in vitro epileptic condition, but not in control conditions. Pharmacological agents that block Ca2+ transporters viz. Na+/Ca2+ exchangers (Benzamil), plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase pumps (Calmidazolium) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase pumps (Thapsigargin) were applied locally to the proximal and distal part of the apical dendrites in both experimental conditions to understand the molecular aspects of the Ca2+ extrusion mechanisms. The relative contribution of Na+/Ca2+ exchangers in Ca2+ extrusion was higher in the distal apical dendrite in in vitro epileptic condition. Using computer simulations with NEURON, biophysically realistic models were built to understand how faster decay of [Ca2+]i transients in the distal part of apical dendrite associated with [Ca2+]i extrusion mechanisms affect excitability of the neurons. With a linear increase in the density of Na+/Ca2+ exchangers along the apical dendrite, the decrease in τ decay values of [Ca2+]i transients in distal regions seen in experimental epileptic condition was reproduced in simulation. This linear increase in Na+/Ca2+ exchangers lowered the threshold for firing in response to consecutive synaptic inputs to the distal apical dendrite. Our results thus, show the existence of a novel neuroprotective mechanism in distal parts of the apical dendrite of subicular pyramidal neurons under in vitro epileptic condition with the Na+/Ca2+ exchangers being the major contributors to this mechanism. Although the enhanced contribution of Na+/Ca2+ exchangers helps the neuron in removing excess [Ca2+]i loads, it paradoxically makes the neuron hyperexcitable to synaptic inputs in the distal parts of the apical dendrites. Thus, the Na+/Ca2+ exchangers may actually protect subicular pyramidal neurons and at the same time contribute to the maintenance of epileptiform activity. In the second part of the study, neuronal network topologies and connectivity patterns were explored in control and glutamate injury induced epileptogenic hippocampal neuronal networks, cultured on planar multielectrode array (8×8) probes. Hyper synchronization of neuronal networks is the hallmark of epilepsy. To understand hyper synchronization and connectivity patterns of neuronal networks, electrical activity from multiple neurons were monitored simultaneously. The electrical activity recorded from a single electrode mainly consisted of randomly fired single spikes and bursts of spikes. Simultaneous measurement of electrical activity from all the 64 electrodes revealed network bursts. A network burst represents the period (lasting for 0.1–0.2 s) of synchronized activity in the network and, during this transient period, maximum numbers of neurons interact with each other. The network bursts were observed in both control and in vitro epileptic networks, but the frequency of network bursts was more in the latter, compared to former condition. Time stamps of individual spikes (from all 64 electrodes) during such time-aligned network burst were collected and stored in a matrix and used to construct the network topology. Connectivity maps were obtained by analyzing the spike trains using cross-covariance analysis and graph theory methods. Analysis of degree distribution, which is a measure of direct connections between electrodes in a neuronal network, showed exponential and Gaussian distributions in control and in vitro epileptic networks, respectively. Quantification of number of direct connections per electrode revealed that the in vitro epileptic networks showed much higher number of direct connections per electrode compared to control networks. Our results suggest that functional two-dimensional neuronal networks in vitro are not scale-free (not a power law degree distribution). After brief exposure to glutamate, normal hippocampal neuronal networks became hyperexcitable and fired a larger number of network bursts with altered network topology. Quantification of clustering coefficient and path length in these two types of networks revealed that the small-world network property was lost once the networks become epileptic and this was accompanied by a change from an exponential to a Gaussian network. In the last part of the study, we have explored if an excitotoxic glutamate injury (20 µM for 10 min) that produces spontaneous, recurrent, epileptiform discharges in cultured hippocampal neurons can induce epileptogenesis in hippocampal neurons of organotypic brain slice cultures. In vitro models of epilepsy are necessary to understand the mechanisms underlying seizures, the changes in brain structure and function that underlie epilepsy and are the best methods for developing new antiseizure and antiepileptogenic strategies. Glutamate receptor over-activation has been strongly associated with epileptogenesis. Recent studies have shown that brief exposure of dissociated hippocampal neurons in culture to glutamate (20 µM for 10 min) induces epileptogenesis in surviving neurons. Our aim was to extend the in vitro model of glutamate injury induced epilepsy to the slice preparations with intact brain circuits. Patch clamp technique in current-clamp mode was employed to monitor the expression of spontaneous epileptiform discharges from CA1 and CA3 neurons using several combinations of glutamate injury protocols. The results presented here represent preliminary efforts to standardize the glutamate injury protocol for inducing epileptogenesis in organotypic slice preparations. Our results indicate that glutamate injury protocols that induced epileptogenesis in dissociated hippocampal neurons in culture failed to turn CA1 and CA3 neurons of organotypic brain slice cultures epileptic. We also found that the CA1 and CA3 neurons of organotypic brain slice cultures are resilient to induction of epileptogenesis by glutamate injury protocols with 10 times higher concentrations of glutamate (200µM) than that used for neuronal cultures and long exposure periods (upto 30 min). These results clearly show that the factors involved in induction of epileptiform activity after glutamate injury in neuronal cultures and those involved in making the neurons in organotypic slices resilient to such insults are different, and understanding them could give vital clues about epileptogenesis and its control. The resilience of CA1 and CA3 neurons seen could be due to differences in homeostatic plasticity that operate in both these experimental systems. However, further studies are required to corroborate this hypothesis.