Les neurones endommagés développent de l'activité ectopique, c'est-à-dire qu'ils déchargent en l'absence de stimulus, ce qui engendre ensuite des douleurs neuropathiques. Des mesures expérimentales ont lié cette activité ectopique à un décalage cinétique (coupled left-shift, CLS) des canaux sodiques tensiodépendants. Nous avons donc construit un modèle numérique d'axone où une portion endommagée subit un tel décalage. Deux résultats fondamentaux et nouveaux sont obtenus : 1) En présence d'activité ectopique, une stimulation à haute fréquence peut entraîner la zone ectopique de l'axone à décharger à la même fréquence que le stimulus. La propagation est alors presque normale. 2) Dans un axone faiblement endommagé, sans activité ectopique au départ, un stimulus temporaire peut déclencher une activité ectopique qui perdure. Ceci amplifie le stimulus et peut donc être lié aux symptômes de douleurs neuropathiques. En plus de ces travaux de recherche, cette thèse propose une imposante section pédagogique, adressé au physicien qui débute en neurosciences. Injured neurons exhibit ectopic activity (ie. they fire without being stimulated), leading to neuropathic pain. Experiments have linked this ectopic activity to a kinetic shift (coupled left-shift, CLS) of the voltage-gated sodium channels. Therefore, we have designed a computational model axon where a damaged zone is affected by such a left-shift. Two important novel results were obtained : 1) In an ectopic axon, high-frequency stimulation can force the ectopic zone to phase-lock to the stimulation frequency. Propagation is then almost normal. 2) In a weakly damaged axon, without initial ectopic activity, a short stimulus can trigger a long lasting ectopic activity. This amplifies the stimulus and can thus be linked to neuropathic pain-like symptoms. In addition to this research work, this thesis encompasses a large educational section, addressed to physicists just starting in neuroscience.

Proteins offer a prominent group of compounds which may be ubiquitously affected in disease and used as biomarkers for early diagnosis, assessing treatment or drug development. Clinical proteomics aim to screen for protein biomarkers by a comprehensive analysis of all proteins expressed in a biological matrix during a certain pathology. Characterization of thousands of proteins in a complex biological matrix is from an analytical point of view a challenging task. Hence, sophisticated methods that are sensitive, specific and robust in a high-throughput manner are required. Mass spectrometry (MS) is able to perform this to a wide extent is. A prominent source for finding protein biomarkers related to neurological diseases is the central nervous system (CNS) due to close proximity of the pathogenesis. Neuroproteomic analysis of CNS tissue samples is thus likely to reveal novel biomarkers. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the entire CNS and offers a good balance between clinical implementation and usefulness. Both matrices put further requirements on the methodology due to a high dynamic range, low protein concentration and limited sample amount. The central objective of this thesis was to develop, assess and utilize analytical methods to be used in combination with MS to enable protein biomarker discovery in the CNS. The use of hexapeptide ligand libraries was exemplified on CSF from patients with traumatic brain injury and demonstrated the ability to compress the dynamic range to enable protein profiling in the order of mg/mL to pg/mL. Further, a method based on cloud-point extraction was developed for simultaneous enrichment and fractionation of hydrophobic/hydrophilic proteins in brain tissue. Comparison between label and label-free MS based strategies were carried out, mimicking the true conditions with a few differentially expressed proteins and a bulk of proteins occurring in unchanged ratio. Finally, a clinical application was carried out to explore the molecular mechanism underlying the analgesic effect of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) in patients with neuropathic pain. The CSF concentration of Lynx1 was found to increase upon SCS. Lynx1, acting as a specific modulator of the cholinergic system in the CNS, may act as a potential important molecular explanation of SCS-induced analgesia.

No description available.

A Associação Internacional para Estudos da Dor (IASP) define a dor neuropática como a dor que surge diretamente de uma lesão ou doença que afeta o sistema somatossensorial. Os sintomas mais característicos são a hiperalgesia e a alodinia. Além disso, alterações comportamentais como transtornos de ansiedade são comorbidades comuns associadas à dor crônica com características neuropáticas. Os métodos de neuromodulação transcraniana como a ETCC tem se mostrado promissores no tratamento da dor e de alguns transtornos neuropsiquiátricos, uma vez que parecem promover alterações neuroplásticas em nível central. Sendo assim, neste estudo avaliamos o efeito da ETCC na atividade locomotora e exploratória, no comportamento do tipo ansioso e na plasticidade medular e cortical em ratos submetidos a um modelo de dor neuropática. Foram utilizados 144 ratos machos Wistar com 55-65 dias de idade, divididos em 6 grupos: Sham Cirurgia (Sc), Sham Cirurgia+Sham ETCC (SsSE), Sham Cirurgia+ETCC (ScE), Dor Neuropática (Dn), Dor Neuropática+Sham ETCC (DnSE) e Dor Neuropática+ETCC (DnE). O modelo de dor neuropática foi realizado a partir da compressão parcial do nervo isquiático e no 14º dia após a cirurgia iniciou-se o tratamento. A ETCC foi aplicada durante 8 dias com sessões de 20 minutos e foi utilizada uma corrente de 0,5 mA de intensidade. O aparato de Campo Aberto e o Labirinto de Cruz Elevado foram avaliados em dois momentos 24h (Fase I) e sete dias (Fase II) após o tratamento. Os níveis de BDNF foram quantificados em dois momentos 48h (Fase I) e sete dias (Fase II) após a última sessão de tratamento. Nossos resultados demonstram que a dor neuropática induz a uma menor atividade locomotora e exploratória associado a um aumento do comportamento do tipo ansioso em ratos. Por outro lado, o tratamento com ETCC provoca aumento na locomoção e na atividade exploratoria associados à diminuição do comportamento do tipo ansioso. A ETCC mostrou ser capaz de induzir mudanças neuroplásticas alterando níveis de BDNF periférico e central. Concluindo, a ETCC foi capaz de alterar parâmetros comportamentais e neuroplásticos. Podendo ser uma técnica promissora para o tratamento de comorbidades associadas à dor neuropática. / The IASP defines neuropathic pain as pain that arises directly from an injury or disease affecting the somatosensory system. The most characteristic symptoms are hyperalgesia and allodynia. Furthermore, behavior changes such as anxiety disorders are common comorbidities associated with chronic pain with characteristics neuropathic. Methods for Neuromodulation transcranial as tDCS are promising in the treatment of pain and some neuropsychiatric disorders, since they seem to further neuroplastic changes in the central level. In this study we evaluate the effect of tDCS on locomotor and exploratory activities, anxiety-like behavior and medullary and cortical plasticity in rats submitted to a neuropathic pain model. A total of 144 male Wistar rats (55-65 days-old; weighing 200–250 g) were divided into 6 groups: Sham Surgery (Ss), Sham Surgery+Sham tDCS (SsS), Sham Surgery+tDCS (SsT), Neuropathic Pain (Np), Neuropathic Pain+Sham tDCS (NpS) and Neuropathic Pain+tDCS (NpT). The model of neuropathic pain was performed by partial sciatic nerve compression and on the 14th day after surgery began tDCS treatment. The tDCS was applied for 8 days with 20-minute sessions and a current intensity of 0.5 mA was used. Open Field and the Plus Maze tests were evaluated at two times 24 (Phase I) and seven days (Phase II) after end of treatment. BDNF levels were quantified in two at 48h (Phase I) and seven days (Phase II) after the last treatment session. Our results demonstrate that neuropathic pain induced a decreased in the locomotor activity and exploratory activity associated with an increase in anxiety-like behavior in rats. On the other hand, treatment with tDCS causes an increase in locomotion and exploratory activity associated with a reduction in anxiety-like behavior. The tDCS proved able to induce neuroplastic changes in BDNF levels by altering the peripheral and central. In conclusion, tDCS changes behavior and neuroplastic parameters; thus it can be a promising technique for the treatment of comorbid conditions associated with neuropathic pain.

A dor neuropática (DN) é causada por uma lesão primária ou por uma disfunção no sistema nervoso periférico (SNP) ou central (SNC), sendo que os principais sintomas são a alodinia mecânica e a hiperalgesia a estímulos térmicos e mecânicos. A DN apresenta resposta analgésica insuficiente com terapeuticas farmacológicas clássicas, sendo um desafio para o tratamento clínico. Técnicas de neuromodulação central, como a estimulação transcraniana por corrente contínua (ETCC), representam um recurso promissor no manejo da dor, uma vez que promovem neuroplasticidade em vias envolvidas com o processo doloroso, sendo um método não-invasivo que pode ser combinado com outras terapias. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos do tratamento repetido com ETCC na resposta hiperalgésica térmica e mecânica em modelo experimental de DN. Adicionalmente, foram avaliados os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF em estruturas do SNC destes animais. Todos os procedimentos foram aprovado pela Comissão de Ética no Uso de Animais (CEUA/HCPA:120512). Oitenta e quatro ratos machos Wistar foram divididos em 7 grupos: controle, dor neuropática, dor neuropática+ETCC, dor neuropática+sham ETCC, sham dor neuropática, sham dor neuropática+ETCC e sham dor neuropática+sham ETCC. O modelo de DN foi induzido por meio de ligura parcial do nervo isquiático na pata esquerda. O sham do modelo de DN seguiu o mesmo protocolo, com simulação da ligadura parcial do nervo isquiático e o grupo controle não sofreu nenhuma manipulação. O tratamento com ETCC consistiu em 20minutos/dia/8 dias, com intensidade de 0,5mA. Para o sham do tratamento, os eletrodos foram apenas fixados à cabeça do animal durante 20 minutos/dia/8 dias, sem nenhuma estimulação. A hiperalgesia térmica e mecânica foi avaliada por meio dos testes da Placa Quente e de Von Frey, respectivamente, no tempo basal, 7 e 14 dias após a cirurgia e imediatamente, 24 horas e 7 dias após o final do tratamento. Os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF no cortex cerebral, medula espinhal e tronco cerebral foram determinados por ELISA 48 horas e 7 dias após o final do tratamento. A análise estatística para os testes nociceptivos foi realizada através da Generalized Estimation Equation (GEE)/Bonferroni e para as análises bioquímicas por ANOVA de uma via (IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α ) e ANOVA de três vias (NGF). Os dados estão expressos como media+erro padrão da média, sendo considerado significativo p<0.05. Nossos resultados demonstraram que a DN altera os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF no SNC em curto e longo prazo. Além disso, a ETCC reduz a resposta nociceptiva a curto e longo prazo e na modulação dos níveis de citocinas no sistema nervoso central neste modelo. Evidencia-se a importância do papel do sistema imune central nos processos de continuidade da dor neuropática, que pode estar envolvido com as alterações neuroplásticas maladaptativas características dessa patologia. / Neuropathic pain (NP) is caused by a primary insult or dysfunction in the central or peripheral nervous system and its prevalence depends on the type of trauma and related dysfunction. The main symptoms are mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia to both mechanical and thermal stimuli. NP often shows insufficient response to classic analgesics and remains a challenge to medical treatment and scientific research; and the search for new therapies for this pathology is of fundamental important. Central neuromodulation techniques, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), represent a promising resource to pain management since they promote neuroplasticity in the central system of pain. Moreover, tDCS has the advantages of being a noninvasive technique and can be combined with other interventions. The aim of this study was investigated the effects of tDCS in the thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of sciatic nerve and measured its effect on the neurochemical markers (IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α, and NGF levels) on central nervous system structures. All experiments and procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (GPPG-HCPA No.120512) and performed in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals 8th ed. The CCI of sciatic nerve was used for the induction of NP. For sham surgery, the sciatic nerve was exposed similarly, but it was not ligated. The control group did not undergo surgical procedure. After the establishment of NP, the rats of treated groups were subjected to a 20 minutes session of anodal tDCS, every afternoon for eight days, under a direct constant current of 0.5 mA intensity. The thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia was assessed by Hot plate and Von Frey test, respectively, and evaluated on baseline, 7 and 14 days after surgery; immediately, 24 hours and 7 days after treatment. The IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α and NGF levels on cortex, spinal cord and brainstem were determined by sandwich-ELISA at 48 hours and 7 days after the end of treatment. Data were expressed as the mean±standard error of the mean (S.E.M). Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) followed by Bonferroni was performed to compare all groups in different times of nociceptive tests and to biochemical data the one-way ANOVA was used to compare the IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α and three-way ANOVA was used to compare the NGF levels. P-values less than 0.05 were considered significant. SPSS 19.0 for Windows was used for statistical analysis. In summary, we showed that anodal tDCS is effective to relieve NP and modulate cytokine in CCI rat model, and its effect is observed at long-term. In addition, the CCI model induced increased NGF levels in cerebral cortex and spinal cord at long-lasting time, evidencing the important feature of this neurotrophin in neuropathic pain condition. Additionally, we observed an important role of the central immune system in the neuropathic process, which can be involved with the maladaptative neuroplastic changes.

L’oxaliplatine, anticancéreux utilisé pour le traitement du cancer colorectal, est responsable d’une neurotoxicité périphérique dose-limitante affectant une grande majorité de patients. La neurotoxicité de l’oxaliplatine se présente sous deux formes : une forme immédiate, se traduisant par des paresthésies transitoires, et une forme retardée et cumulative, caractérisée par l’apparition d’une neuropathie périphérique douloureuse fortement invalidante. A l’heure actuelle, la prise en charge des douleurs neuropathiques est souvent incomplète, principalement à cause du manque de traitements efficaces et bien tolérés. Dans ce contexte, il existe un réel besoin d’innovation thérapeutique pour améliorer le traitement de ces neuropathies, nécessitant au préalable une meilleure compréhension de leur physiopathologie. La première partie de ce travail porte sur l’évaluation de l’effet d’une alimentation sans polyamines sur l’apparition et la chronicisation de la neurotoxicité de l’oxaliplatine chez le rat. En effet, en modulant positivement la sous-unité NR2B des récepteurs NMDA, les polyamines alimentaires pourraient faciliter la sensibilisation douloureuse. Un régime sans polyamines a permis de prévenir l’hypersensibilité thermique et mécanique induite par l’oxaliplatine. Bien que ces symptômes nociceptifs ne soient pas associés à une augmentation de l’expression de la sous-unité NR2B au niveau spinal, l’ifenprodil (antagoniste NR2B spécifique) permet d’en diminuer l’intensité de manière dose-dépendante. Enfin, une étude métabolomique réalisée par spectroscopie RMN du proton a montré que le régime sans polyamines permettait de réguler la neurotransmission excitatrice (glutamate) au niveau de la corne dorsale de la moelle épinière des animaux, expliquant ainsi son effet antalgique. Dans un deuxième temps, nous nous sommes intéressés aux mécanismes supraspinaux impliqués dans la neuropathie chronique induite par l’oxaliplatine, à l’aide d’une approche métabolomique par 1 H-RMN HRMAS. Cette étude a révélé d’importantes modifications métaboliques cérébrales chez les animaux traités par oxaliplatine, notamment une augmentation de la choline dans le cortex insulaire postérieur corrélée de manière significative aux seuils douloureux. Une analyse transcriptomique et pharmacologique a permis de mettre en évidence une implication de la neurotransmission cholinergique dans cette structure. Le ciblage pharmacologique de cette neurotransmission pourrait représenter une stratégie potentiellement intéressante pour le développement de nouveaux traitements antalgiques. L’ensemble de ces résultats expérimentaux a permis l’identification de nouvelles pistes pour la compréhension et le traitement des douleurs neuropathiques chimio-induites. Dans une perspective de recherche translationnelle, ces deux approches précliniques sont en cours de transposition dans des protocoles de recherche clinique. Un essai clinique de phase II (NEUROXAPOL, NCT01775449) a débuté afin de confirmer l’intérêt d’un régime appauvri en polyamines chez des patients recevant une chimiothérapie à base d’oxaliplatine. Une seconde étude clinique (INSULOX) est actuellement en cours de préparation au CHU de Clermont-Ferrand afin de mesurer par IRM les concentrations en choline dans l’insula de patients souffrant de douleurs neuropathiques induites par oxaliplatine. / Oxaliplatin, an anticancer drug used for the treatment of colorectal cancer, is responsible for a dose-limiting peripheral neurotoxicity in the majority of treated patients. This neurotoxicity appears with two components: a rapid-onset acute neurotoxicity manifesting as transient paresthesias and cold-induced dysesthesias; and a late-onset cumulative neurotoxicity characterized by the development of a painful chronic neuropathy. To date, the management of chemotherapy- induced neuropathic pain is still challenging because of the lack of effective treatments. In this context, a better understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this neurotoxicity could lead to the identification of new therapeutic targets. Firstly, we aimed to assess the preventive effect of a polyamine deficient diet on the development of oxaliplatin-induced acute neurotoxicity. Exogenous polyamines, by positively modulating spinal NR2B-containing NMDA receptors, could facilitate pain sensitization. This study has shown that a polyamine deficient diet for 7 days totally prevented oxaliplatin-induced acute cold and mechanical hypersensitivity in rats. Although we observed no change in spinal NR2B expression or phosphorylation, intrathecal ifenprodil (a specific NR2B antagonist) reduced oxaliplatin-induced allodynia in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, proton NMR spectroscopy- based metabolomic analysis has revealed a regulation of spinal glutamate neurotransmission as the most likely mechanism underlying the preventive effect of the diet. Secondly, the metabolic variations associated with oxaliplatin-induced chronic neuropathy were assessed at the supraspinal level using a 1 H-NMR HRMAS-based metabolomic approach. Among the neurochemical changes evidenced in this study, we observed a significant increase in choline within the posterior insular cortex, significantly correlated with the mechanical pain thresholds. A transcriptomic and pharmacological approach have revealed an implication of cholinergic neurotransmission in this brain area. Targeting the cholinergic system using centrally active muscarinic agents could represent an interesting strategy for the treatment of oxaliplatin- induced neuropathic pain. These experimental results led to the identification of new molecular targets for the comprehension and the treatment of chemotherapy-associated painful neuropathy. In a translational approach, these preclinical data will be extended to the clinical setting. A phase II clinical trial (NEUROXAPOL, NCT01775449) is undergoing to confirm the therapeutic interest of a polyamine free diet in patients receiving oxaliplatin. A second clinical project (INSULOX) aiming at assessing the choline concentrations in the insula of patients suffering from oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy is in preparation.

A Associação Internacional para Estudos da Dor (IASP) define a dor neuropática como a dor que surge diretamente de uma lesão ou doença que afeta o sistema somatossensorial. Os sintomas mais característicos são a hiperalgesia e a alodinia. Além disso, alterações comportamentais como transtornos de ansiedade são comorbidades comuns associadas à dor crônica com características neuropáticas. Os métodos de neuromodulação transcraniana como a ETCC tem se mostrado promissores no tratamento da dor e de alguns transtornos neuropsiquiátricos, uma vez que parecem promover alterações neuroplásticas em nível central. Sendo assim, neste estudo avaliamos o efeito da ETCC na atividade locomotora e exploratória, no comportamento do tipo ansioso e na plasticidade medular e cortical em ratos submetidos a um modelo de dor neuropática. Foram utilizados 144 ratos machos Wistar com 55-65 dias de idade, divididos em 6 grupos: Sham Cirurgia (Sc), Sham Cirurgia+Sham ETCC (SsSE), Sham Cirurgia+ETCC (ScE), Dor Neuropática (Dn), Dor Neuropática+Sham ETCC (DnSE) e Dor Neuropática+ETCC (DnE). O modelo de dor neuropática foi realizado a partir da compressão parcial do nervo isquiático e no 14º dia após a cirurgia iniciou-se o tratamento. A ETCC foi aplicada durante 8 dias com sessões de 20 minutos e foi utilizada uma corrente de 0,5 mA de intensidade. O aparato de Campo Aberto e o Labirinto de Cruz Elevado foram avaliados em dois momentos 24h (Fase I) e sete dias (Fase II) após o tratamento. Os níveis de BDNF foram quantificados em dois momentos 48h (Fase I) e sete dias (Fase II) após a última sessão de tratamento. Nossos resultados demonstram que a dor neuropática induz a uma menor atividade locomotora e exploratória associado a um aumento do comportamento do tipo ansioso em ratos. Por outro lado, o tratamento com ETCC provoca aumento na locomoção e na atividade exploratoria associados à diminuição do comportamento do tipo ansioso. A ETCC mostrou ser capaz de induzir mudanças neuroplásticas alterando níveis de BDNF periférico e central. Concluindo, a ETCC foi capaz de alterar parâmetros comportamentais e neuroplásticos. Podendo ser uma técnica promissora para o tratamento de comorbidades associadas à dor neuropática. / The IASP defines neuropathic pain as pain that arises directly from an injury or disease affecting the somatosensory system. The most characteristic symptoms are hyperalgesia and allodynia. Furthermore, behavior changes such as anxiety disorders are common comorbidities associated with chronic pain with characteristics neuropathic. Methods for Neuromodulation transcranial as tDCS are promising in the treatment of pain and some neuropsychiatric disorders, since they seem to further neuroplastic changes in the central level. In this study we evaluate the effect of tDCS on locomotor and exploratory activities, anxiety-like behavior and medullary and cortical plasticity in rats submitted to a neuropathic pain model. A total of 144 male Wistar rats (55-65 days-old; weighing 200–250 g) were divided into 6 groups: Sham Surgery (Ss), Sham Surgery+Sham tDCS (SsS), Sham Surgery+tDCS (SsT), Neuropathic Pain (Np), Neuropathic Pain+Sham tDCS (NpS) and Neuropathic Pain+tDCS (NpT). The model of neuropathic pain was performed by partial sciatic nerve compression and on the 14th day after surgery began tDCS treatment. The tDCS was applied for 8 days with 20-minute sessions and a current intensity of 0.5 mA was used. Open Field and the Plus Maze tests were evaluated at two times 24 (Phase I) and seven days (Phase II) after end of treatment. BDNF levels were quantified in two at 48h (Phase I) and seven days (Phase II) after the last treatment session. Our results demonstrate that neuropathic pain induced a decreased in the locomotor activity and exploratory activity associated with an increase in anxiety-like behavior in rats. On the other hand, treatment with tDCS causes an increase in locomotion and exploratory activity associated with a reduction in anxiety-like behavior. The tDCS proved able to induce neuroplastic changes in BDNF levels by altering the peripheral and central. In conclusion, tDCS changes behavior and neuroplastic parameters; thus it can be a promising technique for the treatment of comorbid conditions associated with neuropathic pain.

A dor neuropática (DN) é causada por uma lesão primária ou por uma disfunção no sistema nervoso periférico (SNP) ou central (SNC), sendo que os principais sintomas são a alodinia mecânica e a hiperalgesia a estímulos térmicos e mecânicos. A DN apresenta resposta analgésica insuficiente com terapeuticas farmacológicas clássicas, sendo um desafio para o tratamento clínico. Técnicas de neuromodulação central, como a estimulação transcraniana por corrente contínua (ETCC), representam um recurso promissor no manejo da dor, uma vez que promovem neuroplasticidade em vias envolvidas com o processo doloroso, sendo um método não-invasivo que pode ser combinado com outras terapias. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos do tratamento repetido com ETCC na resposta hiperalgésica térmica e mecânica em modelo experimental de DN. Adicionalmente, foram avaliados os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF em estruturas do SNC destes animais. Todos os procedimentos foram aprovado pela Comissão de Ética no Uso de Animais (CEUA/HCPA:120512). Oitenta e quatro ratos machos Wistar foram divididos em 7 grupos: controle, dor neuropática, dor neuropática+ETCC, dor neuropática+sham ETCC, sham dor neuropática, sham dor neuropática+ETCC e sham dor neuropática+sham ETCC. O modelo de DN foi induzido por meio de ligura parcial do nervo isquiático na pata esquerda. O sham do modelo de DN seguiu o mesmo protocolo, com simulação da ligadura parcial do nervo isquiático e o grupo controle não sofreu nenhuma manipulação. O tratamento com ETCC consistiu em 20minutos/dia/8 dias, com intensidade de 0,5mA. Para o sham do tratamento, os eletrodos foram apenas fixados à cabeça do animal durante 20 minutos/dia/8 dias, sem nenhuma estimulação. A hiperalgesia térmica e mecânica foi avaliada por meio dos testes da Placa Quente e de Von Frey, respectivamente, no tempo basal, 7 e 14 dias após a cirurgia e imediatamente, 24 horas e 7 dias após o final do tratamento. Os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF no cortex cerebral, medula espinhal e tronco cerebral foram determinados por ELISA 48 horas e 7 dias após o final do tratamento. A análise estatística para os testes nociceptivos foi realizada através da Generalized Estimation Equation (GEE)/Bonferroni e para as análises bioquímicas por ANOVA de uma via (IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α ) e ANOVA de três vias (NGF). Os dados estão expressos como media+erro padrão da média, sendo considerado significativo p<0.05. Nossos resultados demonstraram que a DN altera os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF no SNC em curto e longo prazo. Além disso, a ETCC reduz a resposta nociceptiva a curto e longo prazo e na modulação dos níveis de citocinas no sistema nervoso central neste modelo. Evidencia-se a importância do papel do sistema imune central nos processos de continuidade da dor neuropática, que pode estar envolvido com as alterações neuroplásticas maladaptativas características dessa patologia. / Neuropathic pain (NP) is caused by a primary insult or dysfunction in the central or peripheral nervous system and its prevalence depends on the type of trauma and related dysfunction. The main symptoms are mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia to both mechanical and thermal stimuli. NP often shows insufficient response to classic analgesics and remains a challenge to medical treatment and scientific research; and the search for new therapies for this pathology is of fundamental important. Central neuromodulation techniques, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), represent a promising resource to pain management since they promote neuroplasticity in the central system of pain. Moreover, tDCS has the advantages of being a noninvasive technique and can be combined with other interventions. The aim of this study was investigated the effects of tDCS in the thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of sciatic nerve and measured its effect on the neurochemical markers (IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α, and NGF levels) on central nervous system structures. All experiments and procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (GPPG-HCPA No.120512) and performed in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals 8th ed. The CCI of sciatic nerve was used for the induction of NP. For sham surgery, the sciatic nerve was exposed similarly, but it was not ligated. The control group did not undergo surgical procedure. After the establishment of NP, the rats of treated groups were subjected to a 20 minutes session of anodal tDCS, every afternoon for eight days, under a direct constant current of 0.5 mA intensity. The thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia was assessed by Hot plate and Von Frey test, respectively, and evaluated on baseline, 7 and 14 days after surgery; immediately, 24 hours and 7 days after treatment. The IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α and NGF levels on cortex, spinal cord and brainstem were determined by sandwich-ELISA at 48 hours and 7 days after the end of treatment. Data were expressed as the mean±standard error of the mean (S.E.M). Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) followed by Bonferroni was performed to compare all groups in different times of nociceptive tests and to biochemical data the one-way ANOVA was used to compare the IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α and three-way ANOVA was used to compare the NGF levels. P-values less than 0.05 were considered significant. SPSS 19.0 for Windows was used for statistical analysis. In summary, we showed that anodal tDCS is effective to relieve NP and modulate cytokine in CCI rat model, and its effect is observed at long-term. In addition, the CCI model induced increased NGF levels in cerebral cortex and spinal cord at long-lasting time, evidencing the important feature of this neurotrophin in neuropathic pain condition. Additionally, we observed an important role of the central immune system in the neuropathic process, which can be involved with the maladaptative neuroplastic changes.

A Associação Internacional para Estudos da Dor (IASP) define a dor neuropática como a dor que surge diretamente de uma lesão ou doença que afeta o sistema somatossensorial. Os sintomas mais característicos são a hiperalgesia e a alodinia. Além disso, alterações comportamentais como transtornos de ansiedade são comorbidades comuns associadas à dor crônica com características neuropáticas. Os métodos de neuromodulação transcraniana como a ETCC tem se mostrado promissores no tratamento da dor e de alguns transtornos neuropsiquiátricos, uma vez que parecem promover alterações neuroplásticas em nível central. Sendo assim, neste estudo avaliamos o efeito da ETCC na atividade locomotora e exploratória, no comportamento do tipo ansioso e na plasticidade medular e cortical em ratos submetidos a um modelo de dor neuropática. Foram utilizados 144 ratos machos Wistar com 55-65 dias de idade, divididos em 6 grupos: Sham Cirurgia (Sc), Sham Cirurgia+Sham ETCC (SsSE), Sham Cirurgia+ETCC (ScE), Dor Neuropática (Dn), Dor Neuropática+Sham ETCC (DnSE) e Dor Neuropática+ETCC (DnE). O modelo de dor neuropática foi realizado a partir da compressão parcial do nervo isquiático e no 14º dia após a cirurgia iniciou-se o tratamento. A ETCC foi aplicada durante 8 dias com sessões de 20 minutos e foi utilizada uma corrente de 0,5 mA de intensidade. O aparato de Campo Aberto e o Labirinto de Cruz Elevado foram avaliados em dois momentos 24h (Fase I) e sete dias (Fase II) após o tratamento. Os níveis de BDNF foram quantificados em dois momentos 48h (Fase I) e sete dias (Fase II) após a última sessão de tratamento. Nossos resultados demonstram que a dor neuropática induz a uma menor atividade locomotora e exploratória associado a um aumento do comportamento do tipo ansioso em ratos. Por outro lado, o tratamento com ETCC provoca aumento na locomoção e na atividade exploratoria associados à diminuição do comportamento do tipo ansioso. A ETCC mostrou ser capaz de induzir mudanças neuroplásticas alterando níveis de BDNF periférico e central. Concluindo, a ETCC foi capaz de alterar parâmetros comportamentais e neuroplásticos. Podendo ser uma técnica promissora para o tratamento de comorbidades associadas à dor neuropática. / The IASP defines neuropathic pain as pain that arises directly from an injury or disease affecting the somatosensory system. The most characteristic symptoms are hyperalgesia and allodynia. Furthermore, behavior changes such as anxiety disorders are common comorbidities associated with chronic pain with characteristics neuropathic. Methods for Neuromodulation transcranial as tDCS are promising in the treatment of pain and some neuropsychiatric disorders, since they seem to further neuroplastic changes in the central level. In this study we evaluate the effect of tDCS on locomotor and exploratory activities, anxiety-like behavior and medullary and cortical plasticity in rats submitted to a neuropathic pain model. A total of 144 male Wistar rats (55-65 days-old; weighing 200–250 g) were divided into 6 groups: Sham Surgery (Ss), Sham Surgery+Sham tDCS (SsS), Sham Surgery+tDCS (SsT), Neuropathic Pain (Np), Neuropathic Pain+Sham tDCS (NpS) and Neuropathic Pain+tDCS (NpT). The model of neuropathic pain was performed by partial sciatic nerve compression and on the 14th day after surgery began tDCS treatment. The tDCS was applied for 8 days with 20-minute sessions and a current intensity of 0.5 mA was used. Open Field and the Plus Maze tests were evaluated at two times 24 (Phase I) and seven days (Phase II) after end of treatment. BDNF levels were quantified in two at 48h (Phase I) and seven days (Phase II) after the last treatment session. Our results demonstrate that neuropathic pain induced a decreased in the locomotor activity and exploratory activity associated with an increase in anxiety-like behavior in rats. On the other hand, treatment with tDCS causes an increase in locomotion and exploratory activity associated with a reduction in anxiety-like behavior. The tDCS proved able to induce neuroplastic changes in BDNF levels by altering the peripheral and central. In conclusion, tDCS changes behavior and neuroplastic parameters; thus it can be a promising technique for the treatment of comorbid conditions associated with neuropathic pain.

A dor neuropática (DN) é causada por uma lesão primária ou por uma disfunção no sistema nervoso periférico (SNP) ou central (SNC), sendo que os principais sintomas são a alodinia mecânica e a hiperalgesia a estímulos térmicos e mecânicos. A DN apresenta resposta analgésica insuficiente com terapeuticas farmacológicas clássicas, sendo um desafio para o tratamento clínico. Técnicas de neuromodulação central, como a estimulação transcraniana por corrente contínua (ETCC), representam um recurso promissor no manejo da dor, uma vez que promovem neuroplasticidade em vias envolvidas com o processo doloroso, sendo um método não-invasivo que pode ser combinado com outras terapias. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos do tratamento repetido com ETCC na resposta hiperalgésica térmica e mecânica em modelo experimental de DN. Adicionalmente, foram avaliados os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF em estruturas do SNC destes animais. Todos os procedimentos foram aprovado pela Comissão de Ética no Uso de Animais (CEUA/HCPA:120512). Oitenta e quatro ratos machos Wistar foram divididos em 7 grupos: controle, dor neuropática, dor neuropática+ETCC, dor neuropática+sham ETCC, sham dor neuropática, sham dor neuropática+ETCC e sham dor neuropática+sham ETCC. O modelo de DN foi induzido por meio de ligura parcial do nervo isquiático na pata esquerda. O sham do modelo de DN seguiu o mesmo protocolo, com simulação da ligadura parcial do nervo isquiático e o grupo controle não sofreu nenhuma manipulação. O tratamento com ETCC consistiu em 20minutos/dia/8 dias, com intensidade de 0,5mA. Para o sham do tratamento, os eletrodos foram apenas fixados à cabeça do animal durante 20 minutos/dia/8 dias, sem nenhuma estimulação. A hiperalgesia térmica e mecânica foi avaliada por meio dos testes da Placa Quente e de Von Frey, respectivamente, no tempo basal, 7 e 14 dias após a cirurgia e imediatamente, 24 horas e 7 dias após o final do tratamento. Os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF no cortex cerebral, medula espinhal e tronco cerebral foram determinados por ELISA 48 horas e 7 dias após o final do tratamento. A análise estatística para os testes nociceptivos foi realizada através da Generalized Estimation Equation (GEE)/Bonferroni e para as análises bioquímicas por ANOVA de uma via (IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α ) e ANOVA de três vias (NGF). Os dados estão expressos como media+erro padrão da média, sendo considerado significativo p<0.05. Nossos resultados demonstraram que a DN altera os níveis de IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α e NGF no SNC em curto e longo prazo. Além disso, a ETCC reduz a resposta nociceptiva a curto e longo prazo e na modulação dos níveis de citocinas no sistema nervoso central neste modelo. Evidencia-se a importância do papel do sistema imune central nos processos de continuidade da dor neuropática, que pode estar envolvido com as alterações neuroplásticas maladaptativas características dessa patologia. / Neuropathic pain (NP) is caused by a primary insult or dysfunction in the central or peripheral nervous system and its prevalence depends on the type of trauma and related dysfunction. The main symptoms are mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia to both mechanical and thermal stimuli. NP often shows insufficient response to classic analgesics and remains a challenge to medical treatment and scientific research; and the search for new therapies for this pathology is of fundamental important. Central neuromodulation techniques, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), represent a promising resource to pain management since they promote neuroplasticity in the central system of pain. Moreover, tDCS has the advantages of being a noninvasive technique and can be combined with other interventions. The aim of this study was investigated the effects of tDCS in the thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of sciatic nerve and measured its effect on the neurochemical markers (IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α, and NGF levels) on central nervous system structures. All experiments and procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (GPPG-HCPA No.120512) and performed in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals 8th ed. The CCI of sciatic nerve was used for the induction of NP. For sham surgery, the sciatic nerve was exposed similarly, but it was not ligated. The control group did not undergo surgical procedure. After the establishment of NP, the rats of treated groups were subjected to a 20 minutes session of anodal tDCS, every afternoon for eight days, under a direct constant current of 0.5 mA intensity. The thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia was assessed by Hot plate and Von Frey test, respectively, and evaluated on baseline, 7 and 14 days after surgery; immediately, 24 hours and 7 days after treatment. The IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α and NGF levels on cortex, spinal cord and brainstem were determined by sandwich-ELISA at 48 hours and 7 days after the end of treatment. Data were expressed as the mean±standard error of the mean (S.E.M). Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) followed by Bonferroni was performed to compare all groups in different times of nociceptive tests and to biochemical data the one-way ANOVA was used to compare the IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α and three-way ANOVA was used to compare the NGF levels. P-values less than 0.05 were considered significant. SPSS 19.0 for Windows was used for statistical analysis. In summary, we showed that anodal tDCS is effective to relieve NP and modulate cytokine in CCI rat model, and its effect is observed at long-term. In addition, the CCI model induced increased NGF levels in cerebral cortex and spinal cord at long-lasting time, evidencing the important feature of this neurotrophin in neuropathic pain condition. Additionally, we observed an important role of the central immune system in the neuropathic process, which can be involved with the maladaptative neuroplastic changes.