Newcastle disease virus (NDV), an avian paramyxovirus, enters the host cell by fusion of viral and host cell membranes. The fusion of two membranes is mediated by the viral fusion (F) protein. The F protein, like other class I fusion proteins, is thought to undergo major conformational changes during the fusion process. The exact mechanism that leads to major refolding of F protein is not clear. Recently, it has been proposed that disulfide bond reduction in the fusion protein of some viruses may be involved in the conformational changes in fusion proteins. In some viruses, the reduction of disulfide bonds in the fusion protein is mediated by host cell disulfide isomerases belonging to the protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family. In this study, the role of disulfide bond isomerization in the entry of NDV was analyzed. Using inhibitors of thiol-disulfide isomerases, we found that blocking the reduction of disulfide bonds in the fusion protein inhibited cell-cell fusion as well as virus entry into the host cell. Also, over-expression of isomerases belonging to the PDI family significantly enhanced cell-cell fusion. Taken together, these results suggest that free thiols play an important role in fusion mediated by NDV glycoproteins. Using a thiol specific, membrane impermeable biotin, MPB, we found that free thiols are produced in cell surface-expressed NDV F protein. The production of free thiols was inhibited by inhibitors of thiol-disulfide isomerases. Over-expression of isomerases belonging to the PDI family enhanced detection of free thiols in F protein. In F protein, present in virions or in virus-like particles, free thiols were detected only after the particles were attached to target cells. Taken together, these results suggest that free thiols are produced in F protein and the production of free thiols is mediated by host cell thiol-disulfide isomerases. Using conformation sensitive antibodies, we also studied the conformation of cell surface-expressed F protein in the presence ofthiol-disulfide isomerase inhibitors or in cells over-expressing thiol-disulfide isomerases. In the presence of thiol-disulfide isomerase inhibitors, the cell surface-expressed F protein was in a prefusion conformation while in cells over-expressing thiol-disulfide isomerases the F protein was in a post-fusion conformation. We also correlated the production of free thiols to the conformational changes in F protein. Using temperature-arrested intermediates or F protein with mutations in heptad repeat domains, which are defective in attaining intermediate conformations, we found that free thiols are produced before any of the proposed conformational changes in F protein. Also, the production of free thiols in F protein was found to be independent of its activation by hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) protein. These results suggest that free thiols are probably required for the activation of F protein during membrane fusion.

The final step of paramyxovirus infection requires the assembly of viral structural components at the plasma membrane of infected cells followed by budding of virions. While the matrix (M) protein of some paramyxoviruses has been suggested to play a central role in the assembly and release of virus particles, the specific viral and host protein requirements are still unclear. Using Newcastle disease virus (NDV) as a prototype paramyxovirus, we explored the role of each of the NDV structural proteins in virion assembly and release. For these studies, we established a virus-like particle (VLP) system for NDV. The key viral proteins required for particle formation and the specific viral protein-protein interactions required for assembly and release of particles were explored in chapter 2. First we found that co-expression of all four proteins resulted in the release of VLPs with densities and efficiencies of release (1.18 to 1.16 g/cm3and 83.8%±1.1, respectively) similar to that of authentic virions. Expression of M protein alone, but not NP, F-K115Q or HN proteins individually, resulted in efficient VLP release. No combination of proteins in the absence of M protein resulted in particle release. Expression of any combination of proteins that included M protein yielded VLPs, although with different densities and efficiencies of release. To address the roles of NP, F and HN proteins in VLP assembly, the interactions of proteins in VLPs formed with different combinations of viral proteins were characterized by co-immunoprecipitation. The co-localization of M protein with cell surface F and HN proteins in cells expressing all combinations of viral proteins was characterized. Taken together, the results show that M protein is necessary and sufficient for NDV budding. Furthermore, they suggest that M protein – HN protein and M protein - NP interactions are responsible for incorporation of HN protein and NP proteins into VLPs and that F protein is incorporated indirectly due to interactions with NP and HN protein. Since the vacuolar protein sorting (VPS) system is involved in the release of several enveloped RNA viruses, chapter 3 describes studies which explored the role of the VPS system on NDV particle release. First, we characterized the effects of three dominant negative mutant proteins of the VPS pathway on particle release. Expression of dominant negative mutants of CHMP3, Vps4 and AIP1 proteins inhibited M protein particle release as well as release of complete VLPs. Mutation of a YANL sequence in the NDV M protein to AANA inhibited particle release while replacement of this sequence with either of the classical late domain motifs, PTAP or YPDL, completely restored particle release. The host protein AIP1, which binds YXXL late domain sequences, is incorporated into M protein particles. These results suggest that an intact VPS pathway is necessary for NDV VLP release and that the YANL sequence is an NDV M protein L domain. The sequence and structure of the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) fusion (F) protein are consistent with its classification as a type 1 glycoprotein. We have previously reported, however, that F protein can be detected in at least two topological forms with respect to membranes in both a cell-free protein synthesizing system containing membranes as well as infected COS-7 cells (J. Virol. 2004 77:1951). One form is the classical type 1 glycoprotein while the other is a polytopic form in which approximately 200 amino acids of the amino terminal end as well as the cytoplasmic domain (CT) are translocated across membranes. Furthermore, we detected CT sequences on surfaces of F protein expressing cells and antibodies specific for these sequences inhibited red blood cell fusion to HN and F protein expressing cells suggesting a role for surface expressed CT sequences in cell-cell fusion. In chapter 4, we extended these findings and found that the alternate form of the F protein can also be detected in infected and transfected avian cells, the natural host cells of NDV. Furthermore, the alternate form of F protein was also found in virions released from both infected COS-7 cells and avian cells by Western analysis. Mass spectrometry confirmed its presence in virions released from avian cells. Two different polyclonal antibodies raised against sequences of the CT domain of the F protein slowed plaque formation in both avian and COS-7 cells. Antibody specific for the CT domain also inhibited single cycle infections as detected by immunofluorescence of viral proteins in infected cells. The potential roles of this alternate form of the NDV F protein in infection are discussed. Virus-like particles (VLPs) generated from different viruses have been shown to have potential as good vaccines. Chapter 5 explored the potential of NDV VLPs as a vaccine for NDV or as a vaccine vector for human pathogens. Significant quantities of NDV VLPs can be produced from tissue culture cells. These VLPs are as pure as virions prepared in eggs. In addition, some rules for incorporation of viral proteins into VLPs were also explored. We found that the cytoplasmic domain of the fusion (F) protein is necessary for its incorporation into VLPs. We found that an HN protein with an HA tag at its carboxyl terminus was incorporated into VLPs. We also found that the HN and F proteins of NDV, strain B1, can be incorporated into VLPs with M and NP of strain AV. The demonstration of specific domains required for protein incorporation into particles is important in using NDV VLPs as a vaccine vector for important human pathogens. In conclusion, this dissertation presents results that show that the M protein plays a central role in NDV assembly and release, a finding that is consistent with findings with other paramyxoviruses. More importantly, this work extends the current knowledge of paramyxovirus assembly and release by providing the first direct evidence of interactions between paramyxovirus proteins. These interactions between viral proteins provide a rational basis for incorporation of viral proteins into particles. This work also provides a clearer understanding of the role of the host vacuolar protein sorting machinery in NDV budding. A clear understanding of virus assembly and budding process contributes to the design of strategies for therapeutic intervention and in the development of safer, more economical and effective vaccines.

Desinfektionsmittel sind ein elementarer Bestandteil der Tierseuchenbekämpfung und damit auch der Lebensmittelsicherheit. Die Prüfung chemischer Desinfektionsmittel ist Voraussetzung für deren zuverlässige Wirksamkeit und zielgerichteten Einsatz. In Deutschland geschieht dies nach den Richtlinien der Deutschen Veterinärmedizinischen Gesellschaft e.V. (DVG). Seit der ersten Fassung sind die Richtlinien einem ständigen Anpassungsprozess unterworfen. Im Zuge der europäischen Harmonisierung gilt es nun, sich gesamteuropäischen Richtlinien, verfasst durch das europäische Komitee für Normung (Comité Européen de Normalisation) (CEN) anzupassen. Das Thema dieser Arbeit entwickelte sich im Kontext der derzeitigen Diskussion über Verbesserungsvorschläge zu den bestehenden Richtlinien und deren Anpassung an die europäischen Normen. Es wurden je zwei Testviren für die Bereiche Tierhaltung und tierärztliche Praxis ausgewählt, um sie auf Eignung für die Viruzidieprüfung zu testen und gegebenenfalls zu etablieren. Des Weiteren wurde in einem zweiten Teil, in Anlehnung an die Forderungen der europäischen Normen die Prüfung zu vereinfachen, ein alternatives Zellkulturnachweissystem für das Newcastle-Disease-Virus (NDV) geprüft. Die Prüfung der viruziden Wirksamkeit erfolgte mit fünf verschiedenen Grundsubstanzen, gewählt um ein möglichst breites Spektrum an Desinfektionsmittelwirkstoffen abzudecken. Es wurden Glutaraldehyd, Ethanol, Natronlauge, Natriumhypochlorit und Peressigsäure verwendet. Die Versuche wurden mit einer niedrigen Eiweißbelastung und bei einer Temperatur von 20°C durchgeführt. Um eine praxisnahe Situation zu simulieren wurde auf, bereits in den DVG-Richtlinien, verankerten Stahl- und Holzkeimträgertests zurückgegriffen. Als mögliche Prüfviren für die Tierhaltung wurden das Equine Arteritis-Virus (EAV) und das Bovine Virus Diarrhoe Virus verwendet. Bei beiden Viren handelt es sich um weit verbreitete Tierseuchenerreger mit einer großen epidemiologischen Bedeutung. Die Untersuchung von fünf verschiedenen Desinfektionsmitteln erfolgte im Keimträgertest auf Holz. Sowohl EAV als auch BVD stellen ein weniger geeignetes Prüfvirus dar, da beide Viren enorme Titerverluste im Trocknungsvorgang der Holzkeimträger zeigten. Die Viren ließen sich zwar leicht vermehren, aber die erzielten Ausgangstiter reichten nicht aus um die Trocknungsverluste zu kompensieren und aussagekräftige Ergebnisse zu produzieren. Für den Bereich tierärztliche Praxis wurden das Feline Coronavirus (FCoV) und das Murine Parvovirus (MPV) genutzt. FCoV ist ein weltweit in Hauskatzenpopulationen vorkommendes Virus mit einer hohen Seroprävalenz und wurde daher ausgewählt. MPV wurde als Stellvertreter für die, in der Praxis häufig vorkommenden Parvovirusinfektionen gewählt. Es schien ein ideales Modellvirus aufgrund seiner weiten Verbreitung in der Forschung zu sein. Bei beiden Viren erfolgte die Prüfung auf Stahlkeimträgern. Unter Laborbedingungen konnte FCoV ohne Probleme zu hohen Titern vermehrt werden. Es gab keine nennenswerten Trocknungsverluste. FCoV erwies sich als geeignetes Prüfvirus. MPV hingegen ist bedingt durch die langen Versuchszeiten und schwierig auszuwertenden Zellkulturen, sowie wegen der niedrigen Ausgangstiter weniger geeignet als Modellvirus für die Desinfektionsmittelprüfung. Die Anzucht von NDV in Allantoisflüssigkeit von SPF Hühnereiern erschien sehr aufwendig und mit hohem Eiweißfehler belastet. In den Versuchen konnte ein deutlich höherer Eiweißgehalt als in den vergleichend geprüften, in Zellkultur angezogenen Viren nachgewiesen werden. Infolge der Probleme mit der Kultivierung der LMH-Zelllinie und den damit verbundenen langen Wartezeiten bis zur eigentlichen Versuchsdurchführung kann nur eine teilweise Empfehlung, von auf Zellkultur vermehrtem NDV (NDV (ZK)) gegeben werden. Nach Behebung dieser Probleme ist durchaus eine Ablösung, von in Allantoisflüssigkeit angezüchtetem NDV durch NDV (ZK) zu empfehlen. Die Verfälschung der Ergebnisse durch die höheren Eiweißgehalte bei Desinfektionsmitteln mit deutlichem Eiweißfehler könnten so vermieden werden.

La maladie de Newcastle (MN) grève lourdement les productions aviaires malgaches, essentielles à l'alimentation et à l'économie familiales. La MN est une dominante pathologique en l'absence de vaccination généralisée. L'objectif de cette thèse est la modélisation, la validation et l'analyse mathématique de modèles de transmission du virus de la MN (VMN) dans les systèmes avicoles villageois en général et à Madagascar en particulier. Nous proposons de nouveaux modèles basés sur les connaissances actuelles de l'histoire naturelle de la transmission du VMN. Ainsi, nous présentons deux modèles mathématiques à compartiments de la transmission du VMN dans une population de poules : un premier modèle avec transmission environnementale et un deuxième modèle où la vaccination contre la maladie est prise en compte. Nous présentons une analyse complète de la stabilité de ces modèles à l'aide des techniques de Lyapunov suivant la valeur du taux de reproduction de base R0. Le travail s'est appuyé sur des enquêtes de terrain pour comprendre les pratiques de vaccination actuelles à Madagascar. / Newcastle disease (ND) severely harms Malagasy bird productions, mainly uses to food and family economy. ND is a pathological dominant without general vaccination. The objective of this thesis is modelling the transmission of ND virus (NDV) in smallholder chicken farms in general and, Madagascar in particular. We propose new models based on the state of art and the epidemiology currently known from the transmission of the NDV. Thus, we present two models of the transmission of NDV: a first model with environmental transmission and a second model in which imperfect vaccination of chickens is considered. We present a thorough analysis of the stability of the models using the Lyapunov techniques and obtain the basic reproduction ratio R0. This work is based on field surveys to understand the current vaccination practices in Madagascar.

Le déoxynivalénol (DON) est l'une des mycotoxines trichothécènes les plus abondantes et les plus importantes produites par les espèces de Fusarium. Les aliments contaminés par les mycotoxines peuvent affecter négativement la santé des poulets de chair. La présente étude a été menée pour évaluer les effets du déoxynivalénol (DON) sur les performances des poulets de chair, le poids des organes, les paramètres biochimiques sériques, la réponse immunitaire et l'histologie intestinale. L’expérience a permis d’évaluer l'efficacité d'un additif alimentaire commercial, basé sur les synbiotiques (SFA), et ayant la capacité d'oxyder le DON. Au total, six cents poussins mâles d'un jour d'une souche commerciale (Ross 308) ont été vaccinés avec un vaccin vivant combiné contre le virus de la maladie de Newcastle (NDV) et le virus de la bronchite infectieuse (IBV) et ont été répartis de façon aléatoire entre 6 traitements (100 oiseaux dans chaque groupe) pour 5 semaines. Ces groupes ont été nourris avec la même nourritures naturellement contaminés par DON mais à des concentrations différentes : < 0,5 (régime témoin), 1,5 et 3 mg/kg avec et sans SFA à 250 g/tonne. Les paramètres, y compris le poids corporel, la consommation d'aliments, et le taux de mortalité, ont été enregistrés sur une base hebdomadaire. De plus, des échantillons de sang ont été prélevés sur quatre oiseaux de chaque groupe pour déterminer les caractéristiques biochimiques sériques, et les titres d'anticorps contre NDV et IBV. Au cours de la semaine 5, quatre des poulets sélectionnés ont été euthanasiés, et les organes, coeur, foie, rate, bourse de Fabricius, ont été pesés. Des tissus de l'intestin, segments de 2 cm du duodénum, du jéjunum, de l'iléon et du cæcum, et de la bourse de Fabricius et thymus ont été prélevés pour des examens histologiques. Les résultats obtenus démontrent que les oiseaux dont l’alimentation était contaminée au DON présentaient une diminution (P < 0,05) du poids moyen aux jours 28 et 35 par rapport aux groupe témoin et groupes traités avec le SFA. De plus, l'inclusion de DON dans l'alimentation a réduit le titre d'anticorps contre le NDV (P < 0,05) et l'IBV (P < 0,001). Les paramètres biochimiques sériques, et le poids des organes pendant toute la période expérimentale (P > 0,05) n’ont pas montré de différences significatives. De plus, chez les oiseaux nourris avec des aliments contaminés, le DON a provoqué un processus de nécrose au niveau des villosités du duodénum et du thymus. Cependant, cela n'a pas modifié la morphométrie du tissu intestinal et de la bourse de Fabricius. Il a été conclu que les performances des poulets de chair, ainsi que la réponse vaccinale et paramètres histologiques, étaient négativement affectées par une alimentation contaminée par le DON. La supplémentation alimentaire avec un additif alimentaire à base de synbiotiques, serait une alternative pour atténuer les effets causés par cette mycotoxine chez les oiseaux. / Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most abundant and important trichothecene mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species. Mycotoxin-contaminated feeds may negatively affect broiler chickens’ health, a sustainable approach to achieve mycotoxin elimination is necessary. An experiment was conducted to study the effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) on the performance of broilers, organ weights, serum biochemical parameters, immune response, and intestinal histology and to evaluate the efficacy of a commercial feed additive, based on synbiotics (SFA), with the ability to deepoxidize DON. In total, six hundred 1-d-old male broiler of a commercial strain (Ross 308) were vaccinated with combined live Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) vaccine and were randomly allotted to 6 dietary treatments (100 birds in each group) for 5 wk. These groups were fed 3 diets naturally contaminated with DON at concentrations of < 0.5 (control diet), 1.5, and 3 mg/kg with and without SFA at 250 g/ton. The parameters including body weight, feed intake, and mortality rate were recorded on a weekly basis. In addition, weekly blood samples were collected from four birds in each group to determine serum biochemical characteristics and antibody titers to NDV and IBV. In week 5, four selected chickens were euthanized, and organs (heart, liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius) were weighed. Tissues from intestine (2-cm segments of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and caecum) and immune system (bursa of Fabricius and thymus) were collected for further histological examinations. The results indicated that DON-challenged birds had decreased (P < 0.05) average body weight (ABW) at days 28 and 35 as compared to control and treated groups with SFA. Furthermore, the inclusion of DON in the diet reduced antibody titer against NDV (P < 0.05), and IBV (P < 0.001). However, there were no significant differences in serum biochemical parameters and organs weight during the whole experimental period (P > 0.05). Moreover, in birds fed contaminated diets, DON caused necrosis in duodenum villus and in the thymus but did not alter the intestinal or the immune system morphometrics. It was concluded that broiler performance, histological, and immunological parameters were adversely affected by feeding diets contaminated with DON. However, the dietary supplementation with Synbiotics as a detoxifying agent would be an alternative to alleviate adverse effects on birds.