This master thesis is intended as a contribution to the understanding of the influencestructural changes has on urban transformation in housing domain, by focusing onmechanisms behind the upgrading as accidental model for regeneration of the collectivehousing. In particular, the aim is to do so in relation to a comparison between differentoperational scales on which process is carried out. The process is investigated at the city,neighborhood and street/square scale. With the use of qualitative methods, such asinterviews, in depth analysis of policies and regulations and observations, differences inmanifestation of the regeneration on different scales are discovered. It is suggested thatundefined strategy, indifferent attitude of local authorities, inconsistent legislativeenvironment, disconnection between the operational scales and presence of the market asessential driving force of the process, results in asymmetric outcomes of upgrading, both inphysical and social terms. But on the other hand, in respect to wider political and economicalenvironment in which regeneration happened, it is acknowledged that considerable housingstock is renovated and living standards are improved. The most critical issue in the process isproved to be the uneven awareness of the importance of the regeneration among the actorsat different scales and consequently their performance in respect to it. Furthermore,influence of upgrading on the community life and social relation in the regeneratedneighborhoods are totally neglected, which has for its consequences decreased use ofcommon space between the buildings and erosion of existed communities. It is proved alsothat fully market driven regeneration has rather regressive consequences on urbantransformation in context of Nis but in same time gives valuable lessons for improvement ofthe future upgrading as regeneration model for collective housing. Based on these lessons,adaptive policy changes are suggested and platform for further studies in system or processoriented urban regeneration and design is established. Thesis is organized as follows: firstmethodological approach is explained, second it situate problem in wider regional and localcontext in respect to urban transformation and housing trends, third thesis discuss analysisof operational scales and conclude with final cross-scale discussion and potentials for furtherresearch.

Spatial data is playing a bigger role within many fields outside of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial analysis. With more and more users with varying levels of previous spatial analysis experience using this kind of data, there is a growing demand on how this information is best presented to the user. This user-centered design is an increasingly common theme in other adjacent fields, but is still in its infancy in the field of GIS. Currently there is no obvious generalized solution that provides the answer to how to present data, no matter if it is spatial or not. How to present data in a smart and comprehensive way is still an everyday challenge across many fields. The objective of this thesis is to create a prototype of a web based Network Information System (NIS) where the layman user is in the center of the entire design process. This includes both the actual visualizations, but also the choice of tools and the interface design. The prototype is designed around the role of the customer service representative in a utility company using a NIS. This type of layman user is the kind of user that today works in a system that is designed with neither their role nor their GIT experience or training in mind. From this prototype, the efficacy of different visualization techniques on layman users is evaluated, producing more general guidelines for user-centered development directed at layman users. The first step of this user-centered design process is to understand the user. By interviewing users of the system, their current work flows and opinions of their current system are better understood. From this, information about which tools they need, which current features work well and which need revising is gathered. Based on this, a mock-up is created which is then transformed into a prototype. Finally, the prototype is evaluated by the target audience with comments on a presentation as well as a larger survey. The results show that in general the prototype is well-received with regards to existing functionality and how it is presented through the interface design. The implemented visualizations are well understood by most of the expert users, but are less successful with the layman users in the survey. Especially with regards to the icon choices and other point representations, there is a discrepancy between the intended visualization and the perception of the survey takers, which may partly be due to the lack of context presented. An appreciated fact is that the functionality implemented in the prototype is tailored to the requirements put forth by the users. User-centric design processes depend heavily on the developer's understanding of the user and their needs. This is as true for functionality as for visualizations, where familiarity and associations can be both beneficial and detrimental, depending on how well understood they are. Using icons to represent objects is very efficient, as long as the context and the meaning of the icons themselves are well defined and conveyed. Finally, it is imperative to not throw too much information at the user. Whether in the shape of too many tools and options, or by displaying too much on the map, the same clutter-problem occurs. When presenting a situation or a scenario, the core message cannot be obfuscated by unnecessary features, functions or choices.

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Background: It has been reported that transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) might be utilized as a salvage option for hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), while randomized controlled trials are pending and real-world contemporary data on inpatient mortality is lacking. Methods: We conducted an observational retrospective cohort study from the National Inpatient Sample from 2005 to 2014. We included all adult patients admitted with HRS and cirrhosis, using ICD 9-CM codes. We excluded cases with variceal bleeding, Budd–Chiari, end-stage renal disease, liver transplant and transfers to acute-care facilities. TIPS’ association with inpatient mortality was assessed using multivariable mixed-effects logistic regression, as well as exact-matching, thus mitigating for TIPS selection bias. The exact-matched analysis was repeated among TIPS-only versus dialysis-only patients. Results: A total of 79,354 patients were included. Nine hundred eighteen (1.2%) underwent TIPS. Between TIPS and non-TIPS groups, mean age (58 years) and gender (65% males) were similar. Overall mortality was 18% in TIPS and 48% in dialysis-only cases (n = 10,379; 13.1%). Ninety six (10.5%) TIPS patients underwent dialysis. In-hospital mortality in TIPS patients was twice less likely than in non-TIPS patients (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.43, 95% CI 0.30–0.62; p < 0.001), with similar results in matched analysis [exact-matched (em) OR = 0.39, 95% CI 0.17–0.89; p < 0.024; groups = 96; unweighted n = 463]. Head-to-head comparison showed that TIPS-only patients were 3.3 times less likely to succumb inpatient versus dialysis-only patients (contrast aOR = 0.31, 95% CI 0.20–0.46; p < 0.001), with similar findings post-matching (emOR = 0.22, 95% CI 0.15–0.33; p < 0.001; groups = 54, unweighted n = 1457). Conclusions: Contemporary, real-world data reveal that TIPS on its own, and when compared to dialysis, is associated with decreased inpatient mortality when utilized in non-bleeders-HRS patients. Further randomized studies are needed to establish the long-term benefit of TIPS in these patients.

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Society is becoming increasingly digitalized and interconnected. This includes the infrastructure and systems that help operate society’s functions. One of the most integral services in our societyis the distribution of power and electricity. Power distribution is confined within the energy sector and is one of several sectors deemed essential for society by the EU. The EU is therefore actively trying to increase the level of cybersecurity within these sectors. The NIS-directive was tried in 2016 but failed to meet expectations. Trying again, the EU released the NIS 2 directive which comes into power at the start of the next year. This study aims to get an early look at the impacts NIS 2 is having on the Swedish energy sector. The aim of the study is being pursued using a qualitative approach where experiences and perceptions from security professionals are being gathered through semi-structured interviews. In total, 10 informants from different energy companies were interviewed, and their views have been analyzed and presented as the result of this work. The results found that the biggest organizational change when implementing NIS 2 seems to bean increased focus and involvement from management in information security questions. And the biggest challenge seems to be ensuring supply chain compliance towards NIS 2. Additionally, it seems like small organizations are lacking the resources necessary to address the new requirements under NIS 2. It is concluded that NIS 2 is having a positive impact on information security work in the Swedish energy sector. Organizations are allocating more resources towards information security management and the level of security seems to be increasing. While NIS 2 seems to be positively received, organizations working with NIS 2 are facing several previously known hurdles of information security management work.

The thesis entitled ‘Studies of NIS Mediated Cyclopropane Ring Opening Reactions in Carbohydrate Chemistry’ is divided into four chapters. Chapter 1: Section 1: Efficient Synthesis of Fused Perhydrofuro[2,3-b]pyrans (and furans) by Ring Opening of 1,2-Cyclopropanated Sugar Derivatives. In this section a general and efficient methodology for the synthesis of carbohydrate derived perhydrofuro[2,3-b]pyrans (and furans) from the corresponding 1,2-cyclopropane carboxylates has been discussed. A wide range of linear-fused perhydrofuro[2,3-b]pyran or furan ring systems are encountered in a number of biologically active natural products. A few approaches are available for the construction of this kind of fused motifs which involve harsh reaction conditions and lengthy reaction sequence. The methodology utilizes the potential ability of cyclopropanated sugars to undergo N-iodosuccinimide (NIS) mediated electrophilic ring opening assisted by the pyran ring oxygen followed by intramolecular trapping of oxonium intermediate to generate the furan ring system. Cyclopropantion of tribenzyl glucal using methyl diazoacetate and catalytic amount of dirhodiumtetracetate furnished corresponding exo-1,2-cyclopropane carboxylate exclusively. To generate a nucleophile, cyclopropane carboxylate ester was reduced to the corresponding alcohol which upon treatment with NIS in CH3CN underwent ring opening followed by intramolecular ring closure to give the corresponding perhydro[2,3-b]furopyran along with an oxidized product. After various modifications we found that using CH2Cl2 as a solvent gave the expected perhydrofuropyran as the sole product in good yield (Scheme I). The stereochemistry of the product was established on the basis of 1H-1H NOESY experiment. There are many natural products that contain the perhydrofuro[2,3-b]furyl glycal core such as clerodin, jodrelline B and caryoptin, which show insect anti-feedant properties. With this in mind, the methodology has been successfully extended to the cyclopropanated tetrahydrofuran derivatives resulting in the synthesis of furofuryl glycal moiety (Scheme II). Scheme II Chapter 1: Section 2: Synthesis of Carbohydrate Derived Fused Perhydrofuro/pyrano[2,3-b]-γ-butyrolactones. In this section a general and efficient methodology for the synthesis of carbohydrate derived perhydrofuro/pyrano[2,3-b]-γ-butyrolactones has been discussed. The fusion of the γ-butyrolactone onto a substituted tetrahydrofuran/pyran ring makes a distinctive class natural diterpenoids. Representative members of this family include the marine diterpenoids norrisilide and miniolutelide A. In this chapter we describe a neutral and general method for the construction of perhydrofuro/pyrano[2,3-b]-γ-butyrolactones by NIS mediated ring opening of carbohydrate derived 1,2-cyclopropane carboxylic acids (Scheme III). Scheme III The present strategy is complementary to the existing methods and it is useful since it incorporates an additional chiral center in the molecule under milder conditions, which can be used for further transformations. Chapter 2: Ring Opening of Activated Cyclopropanes with NIS/NaN3: One-pot Synthesis of C-1 Linked Pseudo Disaccharides. Ring opening reactions of activated cyclopropanes have been widely used in organic synthesis. But they are restricted to only selected nucleophiles such as alcohol/ water, as most of the ring opening reactions need acidic activation. This chapter deals with studies of reactivity of various activated cyclopropanes with NIS as a neutral activator and sodium azide as a source of nitrogen nucleophile (Scheme IV). Scheme IV We have clearly demonstrated not only the importance of the donor-acceptor feature in the cyclopropanes in the electrophilic ring opening reaction, but also the selectivity in its functionality. Scheme V This methodology has been successfully utilized in a one-pot synthesis of C-1 linked pseudo-disaccharides from carbohydrate derived 1,2-cyclopropane carboxylates (Scheme V). Chapter 3: Synthesis of Unnatural C-2 Amino Acid Nucleosides Using NIS Mediated Ring Opening of 1,2-Cyclopropane Carboxylated Sugar Derivatives. In this chapter, we have efficiently demonstrated the utility of NIS mediated regioselective ring opening of carbohydrate derived donor-acceptor cyclopropanes for the synthesis of C-2 amino acid nucleosides. This leads to a new class of analogs of peptidyl nucleosides (Scheme VI). Scheme VI One of the advantageous factors is the attachment of nucleobase as well as generation of amino acid precursor in the same reaction which avoids lengthy reaction sequence. We have also shown the synthetic utility of our methodology to pyrimidine based furanosyl C-2 amino acid nucleosides which are of interest, since polyoxins having similar structural core exhibit antifungal activity (Scheme VII). Chapter 4: Attempts Towards the Synthesis of Carbohydrate Derived Spiro-perhydrofuropyrans Using NIS Mediated Cyclopropane Ring Opening Reaction. In this chapter we present various attempts to synthesize spiro-perhydrofuropyran/furans by ring opening of spiro-cylopropane derivatives and attempts towards stereoselective synthesis of spiro-cyclopropane carboxylates. Spiroacetal can be synthesized from the corresponding exo-cyclopropyl methanol, which can be obtained from the corresponding exo- cyclopropane carboxylate. The cyclopropyl carboxylate can be obtained from an exo- vinyl ether. Cyclopropanation of carbohydrate derived exo-glycal failed to give any selectivity under a variety of reaction conditions (Scheme VIII). Carbohydrate derived C1-unsaturated ester on cyclopropanation reaction using standard conditions (Pd(OAc)2/CH2N2) was found to be inert. The reaction under Simmons-Smith cyclopropanation conditions also gave similar results. Reduction of the ester part of the molecule to the corresponding alcohol was found to be helpful in the Simmon-Smith cyclopropanation reaction (CH2I2, Et2Zn) to obtain the corresponding exo-cyclopropane, but disappointingly without any selectivity (Scheme IX). In order to get exo-cyclopropane carboxylate with high stereoselectivity, we decided to use one of the hydroxyl group present in the molecule, as a chiral auxiliary. All the established methods for the diazoester formation failed to attach diazo ester at C-4 position (Scheme X). Scheme X (For structural formula pl see the pdf file)

Abstract The aim of this dissertation is to analyse the process of change in management accounting in public-sector health care. The change is examined through the implementation of a nationally homogeneous Diagnosis Related Grouping (DRG) system. The DRG system is used to classify health-care diagnoses into groups for service productisation and pricing. The system has been proposed as a solution for cost accounting and budgeting. The practical motivation of the dissertation is to analyse the embedding of change in organisations´ practises. The theoretical motivation of the dissertation is to extend the investigation of change by analysing the process of implementation of a nationally homogeneous system. The research data comprise 39 interviews conducted between 2006 and 2011 with hospital district representatives, the representatives of the company managing the DRG system, the DRG system supplier, and the representatives of the National Institute for Health and Welfare and the Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities. In addition to interviews, the data consists of participative observations, telephone inquiries, and newspaper articles. This dissertation consists of four essays that analyse the data through the lens of two theories: the Actor Network (ANT) and Institutional theory (NIS). The results indicate how the use of multiple theories (ANT ja NIS) as a methodology enriches and extends the insight into the change process in management accounting. For instance, the analysis of the homogeneous use of the DRG system, without investigating the practices of actors by making use of the ANT, the results could have been different in this respect. Especially, this dissertation indicates how important it is that actors’ actions are also examined in the processes of change in the implementation of public-sector management accounting systems. The idea for the DRG system was introduced to Finland almost twenty years ago. However, the results indicate that it has spread very slowly. According to earlier research, an institutional environment is considered to exercise pressure on organisations in order to make them adopt new practices that are homogeneous with other institutional practices. There is indirect pressure in decentralised health care in Finland, though its power for change is weak. This dissertation shows how the decentralisation of responsibilities in large-scale institutions, such as the health-care system in Finland, also slows down and decentralises reforms. As institutional power becomes weaker, the power of organisations to promote things seems to grow stronger, however. / Tiivistelmä Tämän väitöskirjatyön tarkoituksena on analysoida johdon laskentatoimen muutosprosessia julkisen sektorin terveydenhoidossa. Muutosta tarkastellaan kansallisesti yhtenäisen diagnoosiperustaisen ryhmittelyjärjestelmän (Diagnosis Related Grouping, DRG) käyttöönottoprosessin kautta. DRG on järjestelmä, jossa luokitellaan terveydenhoidon diagnoosit ryhmiin palvelujen tuotteistusta ja hinnoittelua varten. Järjestelmää on esitetty ratkaisuna kustannuslaskentaan ja budjetointiin. Väitöskirjatyön käytännön motivaationa on analysoida muutoksen asettumista organisaatioiden käytäntöihin. Väitöskirjatyön teoreettisena motivaationa on laajentaa muutostutkimusta tarkastelemalla kansallisesti yhtenäisen järjestelmän käyttöönottoa. Tutkimuksen aineisto koostuu 39 haastattelusta, joita on kerätty vuosien 2006 ja 2011 välillä. Tutkimuksessa on haastateltu sairaanhoitopiirien henkilökuntaa, DRG-järjestelmän hallinnoiman yhtiön edustajia, järjestelmän toimittajaa, Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitoksen sekä Kuntaliiton edustajia. Aineisto sisältää haastattelujen lisäksi osallistuvaa havainnointia, puhelinkyselyjä sekä lehtiartikkeleita. Tämä väitöskirjatyö koostuu neljästä esseestä, joissa analysoidaan aineistoa kahden eri teorian, toimijaverkostoteorian (ANT) ja institutionaalisen teorian (NIS), avulla. Tulokset tuovat esille, kuinka kahden teorian (ANT ja NIS) metodologinen käyttö rikastuttaa ja laajentaa näkemystä johdon laskentatoimen muutosprosessista. Esimerkiksi analysoitaessa DRG-järjestelmän yhtenäistä käyttöä tutkimatta toimijoiden toimintaa toimijaverkostoteoriaa hyödyntäen, tulokset voisivat tältä osin olla erilaiset. Erityisesti tämä väitöskirjatyö osoittaa, kuinka tärkeää julkisen sektorin johdon laskentajärjestelmien käyttöönoton muutosprosessia tutkittaessa on tutkia myös toimijoiden toimintaa. Idea DRG-järjestelmästä esitettiin Suomessa melkein kaksikymmentä vuotta sitten. Tulokset osoittavat kuitenkin, että sen leviäminen on ollut hyvin hidasta. Aikaisempien tutkimusten mukaan institutionaalisen ympäristön katsotaan painostavan organisaatioita, jotta ne ottaisivat käyttöön uusia menetelmiä, jotka ovat yhdenmukaiset muiden institutionaalisten käytänteiden kanssa. Suomen hajautetussa terveydenhoidossa esitetään epäsuoraa painetta, mutta sen voima muutokseen ei ole vahva. Väitöskirjatyö tuo esille miten suurien instituutioiden, kuten Suomen terveydenhoidon, vastuun hajautuessa myös reformit hidastuvat ja hajautuvat. Institutionaalisten voimien heikentyessä organisaatioiden voima ajaa asioita näyttää kuitenkin vahvistuvan.