My dissertation offers three empirical studies of the outcomes following public policy changes designed to reduce the impact of discrimination. The first two chapters focus on the migration of black South Africans soon after the notorious apartheid policies of the South African government were eliminated in the early 1990s. The last chapter of my thesis touches another anti-discrimination policy, the American with Disabilities Act of 1990.Chapter 1 investigates the impact of internal migration on the human capital redistribution within South Africa. As apartheid was being dismantled, new opportunities for movement opened up to black workers, leading to a surge in internal migration. The empirical analysis shows that individuals prefer localities with higher expected log wages regardless of their educations and skills. Second, over the study period, brain drain arose among blacks within South Africa: the share of people with high school education rose in areas that had originally had more people with high school educations.Chapter 2 studies the impact of family migration on women's employment status in South Africa as apartheid was being dismantled. Black women in migrating households with both spouses were more likely to be unemployed than in nonmigrant households. Moreover, the initial negative relationship between migration and employment in a new area for white spouses of migrants was eliminated within 2 years, while black spouses of migrants experienced higher levels of unemployment relative to nonmigrants over a more extended period.Chapter 3 examines the changes in the Oaxaca decomposition measures of labor market discrimination for individuals with disabilities before and after the passage of the ADA. The results indicate that the employment and wage gaps between the disabled and the non-disabled have risen sharply over time, both before and after the passage of the ADA. Most of the rise prior to the ADA was attributable to a rise in differences that cannot be explained with measurable factors. Nearly all of the rises in the gaps after the introduction of the ADA, however, are attributable to factors that can be measured. The unexplained differential has held relatively constant during that period.

A photolabile terpolymer containing 6-nitroveratyloxycarbonyl (NVOC) protected amine, epoxy and trimethoxysilyl functionality in 1:3:2 monomer ratio was synthesized to template glass surfaces for specific site directed coupling of non-probe oligomers and probe oligonucleotides. Non-probe oligomers were introduced to the surface to control the environment of the probes by reducing probe-to-probe and probe-to-surface interactions. The trimethoxysilyl group served as the anchoring site for the terpolymer to be covalently bound to glass and silicon wafers. Amine terminated non-probe oligomers were coupled to the epoxy sites and thiolated 19-mer SMN1 probes were directed to the deprotected amine sites via the heterobifunctional linker, sulfosuccinimidyl-4-[maleimidomethyl]cyclohexane-1-carboxylate (sulfo-SMCC). Characterization of the terpolymer was done using 1H NMR, 13C NMR, MALDI-ToF and elemental analysis. NVOC deprotection was monitored by UV absorption, and surface characterization of the bound terpolymer on silicon wafers was investigated with XPS, ToF-SIMS, ellipsometry and static contact angle. Neutral polyethylene glycol (PEG), negatively charged methacrylic acid (MAA) oligomer and dC20 oligonucleotides were used as non-probe oligomers. The probe density on the surface was estimated to be 2.2 ± 0.3 x 10^12 molecules/cm2 and the presence of the oligomers on the surface did not significantly affect probe immobilization efficiency. The mixed films were functional for target hybridization and its selectivity towards partially-mismatched targets was investigated at different solution pH, ionic strength and temperature. It was demonstrated that pH can be tuned to ameliorate non-specific adsorption and ionic strength governed the selectivity of the surfaces. Improved selectivity was achieved at high salt concentration (1 M NaCl) on PEG and dC20 mixed films at room temperature. The MAA surface did not show significant improvements in selectivity. This indicated that charge of the oligomers does not dominate control of selectivity. The results suggested that the terpolymer construct played a role in depression of the melting temperature of the hybridized duplex to within 5 to 10 oC of room temperature. With the melting temperature shifted closer to room temperature, it is possible to improve selectivity for room temperature detections of single nucleotide polymorphism.

Parabutoporin (PP) and opistoporin 1 (OP1) are cation, a-helical antimicrobial peptides isolated from the southern African scorpion species, Parabuthus schlechteri and Opistophthalmus carinatus, respectively. Along with their antimicrobial action against bacteria and fungi, these peptides show pore-forming properties in the membranes of mammalian cells. Pore-formation and ion selectivity in cardiac myocytes were investigated by measuring the whole cell leak current by means of the patch clamp technique. Pore-formation was observed as the induction of leak currents. Ion selectivity of the pores was indicated by the shift of the reversal potential (E,,,) upon substitution of intra (K' with CS' and CI- with aspartate) and extracellular (Na' with NMDG') ions. Results were compared with the effect of gramicidin A used as a positive control for monovalent cation selective pores. PP and OP I induced a fluctuating leak current and indicate non-selectivity of PP and OP1-induced pores. An osmotic protection assay to determine estimated pore size was performed on the cardiac myocytes. PP and OP1-induced pores had an estimate pore size of 1.38-1.78 nm in diameter. The effect of PP and OP1 on the membrane potential (MP) of a neuroblastoma cell line and cardiac myocytes was investigated. TMRM was used to mark the MP fluorescently and a confocal microscope used to record the data digitally. The resting membrane potential (RMP) of the neuroblastoma cells was calculated at -38.3 f 1.9 mV. PP (0.5 uM) and OP1 (0.5-1 uM) depolarized the entire cell uniformly to a MP of -1 1.9 k 3.9 mV and -9.4 k 1.9 mV, respectively. This occurred after 20-30 min of peptide exposure. In the case of the cardiac myocytes depolarization was induced to -39.7 f 8.4 mV and -32.6 f 5.2 mV by 0.5-1 uM PP and 1.5-2.5 uM OPl, respectively. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Traditionally children with developmental disabilities who develop feeding issues can be at great risk for malnutrition. Failure to eat adequate amounts of food and/or insistence on eating a limited range of foods can be detrimental to a child's health and can lead to other behavioral difficulties. Feeding problems are difficult to treat because high levels of physical prompting can quickly create an aversion to eating as well as cause stress for both parents and children. Behavioral problems that range from moderate to extremely maladaptive can ensue. The question the present study addressed was whether or not a treatment package including only positive reinforcement and fading for a non-preferred food would result in independent eating of the targeted non-preferred food.

Les récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPG) représentent la plus grande famille de protéines membranaires. Ils sont activés par une grande variété d'hormones, de neurotransmetteurs, et par des stimuli sensoriels. Ces récepteurs jouent un rôle central dans le contrôle de la grande majorité des fonctions physiologiques et constituent une cible thérapeutique majeure. Plusieurs études supportent l'existence de plusieurs états conformationnels de ces récepteurs stabilisés par les ligands. Le caractère dynamique des RCPG est essentiel dans leur fonctionnement. Une question majeure est de déterminer comment un ligand modifie la structure et la fonction de son récepteur. Pour cela, nous avons analysé les changements conformationnels d'un récepteur prototype de la famille des récepteurs à ligands peptidiques, le sous-type V2 de la vasopressine (V2R). Le V2R présente un large éventail de ligands ayant des efficacités différentes (agoniste partiels et complets, agonistes inverses et antagonistes) ainsi que des agonistes biaisés vis-à-vis des voies de signalisation dépendantes de Gs et des arrestines. Afin de déterminer les bases structurales de l'efficacité (amplitude de la réponse biologique) et de la sélectivité fonctionnelle (la capacité d'un RCPG à activer ou à inactiver préférentiellement une voie de signalisation parmi l'ensemble des voies de transduction auxquelles il est couplé), nous avons purifié et stabilisé le V2R par reconstitution en amphipols neutres (Napols). La fonctionnalité du récepteur a été vérifiée par mesure de son interaction directe avec la protéine Gs et les arrestines purifiés. Les profils d'efficacité des ligands vis-à-vis des deux voies de signalisation sont cohérents avec ceux décrits dans des cellules vivantes. Afin d'aborder directement les changements conformationnels dépendants des ligands, nous avons développé deux approches de fluorescence, la fluorescence intrinsèque des tryptophanes et le LRET (Lanthanide Resonance Energy Transfer). La liaison des ligands ayant des efficacités opposées pour la voie Gs ont induit des variations opposées de la fluorescence intrinsèque des tryptophanes, suggèrant l'existence d'états conformationnels distincts. En parallèle, l'analyse des changements des signaux de LRET entre deux domaines fonctionnels du récepteur marqués par deux fluorophores compatibles, le domaine transmembranaire 6 (TM6) côté cytoplasme et l'extrémité C-terminale distale, a permis de calculer une distance moyenne de 33 Å. En accord avec les variations de fluorescence intrinsèque des tryptophanes, les ligands ayant des efficacités opposées pour la voie Gs ont induit un mouvement opposé de ces deux domaines. Les agonistes complets entraînent un éloignement de la boucle i3 et de l'extrémité C-terminale (+2.4 Å) alors qu'un rapprochement des deux domaines est associé à la liaison de l'agoniste inverse (-0.9 Å). Nos résultats démontrent qu'un récepteur à ligands peptidiques répond à la liaison de ses ligands spécifiques par des changements conformationnels dynamiques. Chaque ligand est caractérisé par un ou plusieurs états conformationnels distincts. De plus, les changements conformationnels du V2R jouant un rôle dans le couplage à Gs sont différents de ceux impliqués dans le recrutement des arrestines. Ces données apportent des éléments essentiels de compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires et structuraux de l'activation des RCPG. A plus long terme, une étude plus extensive de la dynamique des RCPG devrait guider le développement de molécules thérapeutiques possédant des propriétés de sélectivité fonctionnelle. / G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) are seven-transmembrane proteins that mediate most cellular responses to hormones and neurotransmitters, representing the largest group of therapeutic targets. Several studies support the existence of multiple ligand-specific conformational states of GPCR. The dynamic character of GPCR is likely to be essential for their functioning, and a better understanding of this molecular plasticity might facilitate structure-based drug discovery. A major question is to determine how ligands modify receptor structure and function. To this end, we have been studying the structural dynamics of the human vasopressin type 2 receptor (V2R), a prototypical peptide-activated class A GPCR. The V2R is coupled to Gs protein and to β-arrestins, and it has been well characterized pharmacologically using a large panel of ligands with different efficacies. Several display functional selectivity (Gs activation and concomitant β-arrestin inhibition). To demonstrate that ligand efficacy and functional selectivity are achieved through the stabilization of multiple conformational states, we have purified and reconstituted the V2R in amphipathic polymers (amphipol) and developed fluorescence-based approaches. The functionality of the V2R was monitored by direct activation of the purified Gs protein and interaction with purified β-arrestin 1. In these two assays, the effect of ligands correlated well with their known efficacy in cellular systems. Binding of V2R ligands with opposite efficacies toward Gs pathway led to opposite variations in the tryptophan intrinsic fluorescence of the receptor, suggesting the presence of different conformational states of the receptor. In parallel, we used Lanthanide-based resonance energy transfer (LRET) to directly analyze dynamics of the V2R and more particularly conformational changes between fluorophore-labeled extreme C-terminus and transmembrane domain 6. We calculated a basal mean distance of 33 Å between these domains. Interestingly, ligands with different efficacies towards Gs protein elicited opposite LRET changes as for tryptophan fluorescence spectroscopy. Indeed, the two labeled domains moved away upon full agonist binding (+2.4 Å), and closer in presence of inverse agonist (-0.9 Å). These data provide the first evidence of ligand-specific conformational changes in a peptide-activated receptor, and demonstrate that receptor conformational changes involved in Gs coupling are different from those responsible for arrestin recruitment. The results shed some light into the molecular and structural mechanisms of GPCR activation that may be relevant to the design of signaling pathway-selective drugs.

Socioemotional selectivity theory posits that as people age, they become motivated and successful at maximizing positive emotions and minimizing negative ones. Yet, 70% of older adults report physical pain, which is associated with negative affect. The strategies and resources that older adults use to maintain positive affect in the face of pain remain largely unknown. Specific positivity-enhancing strategies include recalling, recognizing, and responding to positive stimuli and prioritizing close over knowledgeable social partners. Executive functions (EF, i.e., task-switching, working memory, and inhibition) and heart rate variability (HRV) may be important resources for coping with pain. The current project used two studies to test whether older adults used positivityenhancing strategies and maintained emotional wellbeing following pain more than younger adults; associations with EF and HRV were also investigated. In Study 1, 50 older and 50 younger adults experienced a control and a pain condition, were given the chance to employ positivity-enhancing strategies, and provided EF and HRV data. Study 2 used longitudinal data from community-dwelling older adults (n =150) to test whether task-switching moderated the within-person relationship between pain and wellbeing. In Study 1, after the pain condition, younger adults demonstrated lesser preference toward knowledgeable social partners than older adults (γ = -0.15, p = .016). No other age group x pain condition x valence interactions were found. Older and younger adults did not differ in changes in positive or negative affect following pain. Task-switching and HRV were both associated with reduced preference for knowledgeable social partners following pain, but no other significant EF or HRV interactions were found. Study 2 failed to support the hypothesis that task-switching protected against pain-related declines in wellbeing. Future research on strategies that older adults use to maintain emotional wellbeing in the face of pain is needed.

No description available.

Deregulation of protein kinases is associated with many diseases making them important targets for therapeutic intervention. Kinases can switch between active and inactive conformations that can be targeted by type 1 or type 2 inhibitors respectively. One of the most relevant conformational switches is the ‘in’ and ‘out’ movement of the ATP/Mg2+ binding motif DFG. Factors modulating the conformational equilibria such as the residue environment of regulatory motifs remain poorly understood despite their importance for drug discovery. In this thesis, the first model system tested the hypothesis that accessibility of the DFG-out conformation is restricted by the energetic cost of transition between the in and out states. CDK2 was chosen as a target that was thought to have an inaccessible DFG-out conformation, and several point mutations were introduced to promote this conformational transition. Detailed biochemical and biophysical characterisation illustrated that the mutants bound type 2 inhibitors more potently than the wild type. In addition, the wild-type CDK2 was shown to bind type 2 inhibitors in the absence, but not in the presence, of cyclin. The first known CDK2 co-crystal structure in the DFG-out conformation was solved, opening the door to a new class of CDK2 inhibitors. In the second project, site-directed mutagenesis was used to explore the residues determining inhibitor selectivity between PIM1 and PIM2. Evaluation of ligand binding to the variants and comparison of PIM1 and PIM2 crystal structures showed that flexibility of the phosphate-binding loop was the dominant factor determining the differences in their affinities for ATP and small molecule inhibitors. These studies illustrate that residues contributing to kinase conformational equilibria can be just as important for inhibitor binding as contact residues formed in the ligand complex.

La mise en évidence des nanotubes de carbone mono-feuillets (SWCNTs) en 1993 par S. Iijima a été une des découvertes qui a marqué la recherche dans le domaine des nanos. L'étude de leurs propriétés a révélé qu'elles étaient supérieures à celles de matériaux déjà connus et a laissé entrevoir un champ très large d'applications potentielles. Les méthodes de synthèse actuelles permettent de produire des SWCNTs en grande quantité. Cependant, les échantillons de SWCNTs peuvent être hétérogènes tant au niveau de leur composition (impuretés carbonées et métaux catalytiques) qu'en ce qui concerne les caractéristiques des SWCNTs eux-mêmes. Des traitements post-synthèses sont donc indispensables pour améliorer les caractéristiques des échantillons. Dans ce travail, nous avons dans un premier temps mis en oeuvre une procédure de purification (multi-étape) couramment utilisée. En accord avec la littérature, l'optimisation des paramètres expérimentaux notamment en ce qui concerne le traitement d'oxydation n'a pas permis d'obtenir de bons rendements de purification et une sélectivité de réaction performante. Une méthode de purification alternative a été développée. Elle consiste essentiellement à un traitement thermique sous flux de dichlore. Elle a permis de diminuer significativement la proportion d'impuretés métalliques tout en préservant les nanotubes. Elle s'est également révélée efficace avec des échantillons produits selon différentes méthodes. L'autre difficulté majeure dans l'utilisation des nanotubes est leur processabilité. La modification de l'état de surface des nanotubes passe par la fonctionnalisation chimique. Pour cela, nous avons étudié le greffage de fonctions sondes / The discovery of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) in 1993 by S. Iijima has been one of the milestones of scientific research in the domain of nanos. The study of their properties has revealed that they were superior to those of materials already known and has let to foresee a field of numerous potential applications. The actual methods of synthesis enable to produce SWCNTs in large quantities. However, the SWCNT samples can be heterogeneous regarding both their composition (carbonaceous and metal impurities) and the features of the as-produced SWCNTs. Post-synthesis treatments are therefore indispensable to improve the characteristics of the samples. In this work, firstly we have carried out a standard multi-step purification procedure. In agreement with literature, the optimization of experimental parameters notably those used for the oxidation treatment did not permit us to obtain neither good yields of purification nor efficient selectivity of reaction. An alternative purification method has thus been developed. It consists mainly in a thermal treatment under a dichlore stream. It has enabled to significantly decrease the proportion of metallic impurities in the samples while preserving the nanotubes. It has also shown that this new purification process was efficient with samples produced by different methods. The other main difficulty in using nanotubes is their processability. Chemical functionalization is then needed to modify nanotube surface properties. In that case, we have studied the grafting of probe functions

La flottation ionique est un procédé de séparation permettant d'extraire et de concentrer des ions dans une mousse formée à l'aide d'un tensioactif. Pour les systèmes classiques, la forte interaction entre les ions et le tensioactif collecteur entraîne généralement la formation de précipités. Une fois la mousse collapsée, le résidu solide récupéré nécessite un traitement particulier pour permettre sa valorisation ou son conditionnement. Afin de remédier à cet inconvénient, ce travail propose d'utiliser comme collecteur un tensioactif carboxylique polyéthoxylé, l'AKYPO® RO 90 VG, ayant la particularité de former des complexes ion-tensioactifs solubles, et ce également avec des ions multichargés. Ce travail présente une étude poussée des mécanismes fondamentaux qui régissent l'extraction d'ions par formation de mousses. Dans une première partie, les propriétés tensioactives et acide base du collecteur en solution sont étudiées en combinant nombre de techniques indépendantes que sont le dosage pHmétrique, la tensiométrie et la diffusion aux petits angles. L'évolution de ces propriétés en présence de différents sels de nitrates (Nd, Eu, Ca, Sr, Cu, Li, Na, Cs) couplée à des mesures électrophorétiques donneront une première approche de la sélectivité. Enfin, l'ensemble de ces données associées à une étude de la formation des complexes tensioactif/ion permettra d'établir la spéciation du système Nd/AKYPO® en fonction du pH. Dans une seconde partie, l'analyse de la conductimétrie et de la diffusion de neutron aux petits angles permettront d'établir les paramètres régissant la formation et stabilité des mousses de flottation. Le pH et la nature des ions ajoutés, leur nombre de charge ainsi que leur nature chimique, apparaissent ainsi comme les paramètres majeurs gérant l'humidité et l'épaisseur de film des mousses. La dernière partie est dédiée à la compréhension des expériences d'extraction/séparation ionique par flottation en s'appuyant sur l'ensemble des résultats obtenus précédemment. Il est montré que la flottation du néodyme est fortement liée à sa spéciation, pouvant conduire à sa dés-extraction ou sa flottation sous forme particulaire. Il est également montré que le néodyme induit un phénomène de déplétion des ions monovalents dans la mousse. Cette spécificité ionique permet d'envisager le système étudié pour la séparation d'ions par le procédé de flottation. / Ion foam flotation allows to concentrate ions in a foam phase formed by a soap. For classical systems, the strong interaction between ions and surfactant generally leads to the formation of precipitates and of froth. When the froth collapses, the solid residue thus recovered requires a recycling or conversion. In order to remedy this, the present work uses as collector a polyethoxylated carboxylic surfactant, AKYPO® RO 90 VG, which forms soluble ion/surfactant complexes, even with multi-charge ions. This work presents a detailed study of the fundamental mechanisms that govern the extraction of ions by foaming. In the first part, surface activity and acid/base properties of the surfactant in solution are determined by combining numerous independant techniques which are pHmetric dosage, tensiometry and small angle scattering. The evolution of these properties in the presence of different nitrate salts (Nd, Eu, Ca, Sr, Cu, Li, Na, Cs) coupled with electrophoretic measurements give a first approach to selectivity. Finally, all of these data combined with a study of the formation of surfactant/ion complexes allow us to determine the speciation of Nd/AKYPO® system as a function of pH. In the second part, the analysis of the foam by conductivity and neutron scattering provides information on the wetness and foam film thickness, parameters governing foam stability. The pH and the nature of the added ions, their number of charge and also their chemical nature thus appear to be major parameters that governed wetness and foam film thickness. The last part is devoted to the understanding of the ion extraction/separation experiments by flotation based on all previous results. It is shown that the flotation of neodymium is strongly related to its speciation, which could lead to its re-extraction or its flotation in precipitated form. It is shown that, neodymium induces a phenomenon of mono-charge ion depletion in the foam. This ionic specificity allows to consider the studied system for ion separation by the flotation process.