Since their recent introductions into Florida waters, three nonnative species [Perna viridis Linnaeus, 1758 (Asian green mussel), Mytella charruana d'Orbigny, 1846 (charru mussel) and Megabalanus coccopoma Darwin, 1854 (pink titan acorn barnacle)] have expanded both north and south along the Atlantic coast. Very little research has been done to understand how these nonnative species interact with the native eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin, 1791), which is a keystone species that provides important ecological services and economic benefits. To test the potential effects of P. viridis, M. charruana and M. coccopoma on C. virginica, I addressed the following questions: 1a) Does the presence of nonnative species decrease oyster larval settlement? 1b) Do oyster larvae avoid settling on oyster shells to which nonnative species are attached? 2a) Do nonnative species decrease survival of juvenile oysters (spat)? and 2b) Do nonnative species hinder spat growth? My manipulative experiments showed that the tested nonnative species influenced settlement, growth and survival of C. virginica in unique ways. Megabalanus coccopoma decreased the total number of settled oyster larvae, but did not influence larval preference or survival and growth of spat. Perna viridis negatively influenced larval settlement and oyster larvae avoided settling on shells of P. viridis. Mytella charruana had no influence on the total number of settled larvae but oyster larvae avoided settling on oyster shell with M. charruana or on the mussel shells themselves. Furthermore, both nonnative mussels negatively affected the survival of juvenile oysters, but only M. charruana reduced spat growth. These three nonnative species should be classified as invasive species because all had negative effects on the native oyster C. virginica.

The availability of water is a limiting resource for many wildlife species in arid and semi- arid environments. Free water is essential for critical life stages for numerous species, including migration, reproduction, survival, and habitat selection. Riparian areas in the desert occur relatively infrequently, but support a disproportionally large percentage of plant and wildlife species found in arid environments. Our study covered two aspects of water use in the west desert of Utah. The first was assessing the impacts of nonnative ungulates (specifically feral horses and cattle) on natural springs, and how they influenced water quality, vegetation, and wildlife diversity at those springs. We found that these ungulates reduced plant cover and plant species richness at our sites. Additionally, we found that the number of plant species positively correlated with wildlife diversity. This indicates that further management of these nonnative ungulates may be warranted. In our second chapter we investigate how Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) use water by quantifying seasonal use, behavior, and testing a hypothesis that a ‘runway’ with drop in elevation is needed for eagles to have a quick exit. We found that eagle use of water resources was strongly concentrated in the summer months during the hottest temperatures. Adult birds used water features more often than younger birds. The most common behavior exhibited at water features was drinking, followed by bathing and preening. We found that there was a positive relationship between the number of visits and the maximum slope at each site, supporting the idea that the ‘runway’ is not required but is preferred at water sources. Overall, our results indicated that Golden Eagles use water regularly in arid environments, particularly during summer months. This research provides insight into how species are using desert riparian areas and how these species and habitats should be managed in future decades.

No description available.

This study investigates the relationship between nonnative English speaker (NNES) proficiency level and native English speaker (NES) level of comfort interacting with NNES. The purpose of this study was to discover at what proficiency level NESs feel comfortable interacting with NNES. This study also looked at how communicative task and NES demographic variables affected the proficiency expectations NNESs have for NESs. Participants included 120 NESs and 7 NNESs. The NESs listened to sound clips from the 7 NNESs and rated how comfortable they would feel (on a scale of 0-10, 10 indicating very comfortable) interacting with the speaker in a variety of communication tasks. Listeners rated intermediate and advanced level speakers significantly higher than the novice speakers. Additionally, there was not a significant difference between mean ratings for the intermediate and advanced speakers. Communication task was revealed as having a significant main effect on task. Listeners rated that they would feel least comfortable communicating with the speakers over the phone while discussing a customer service issue. They also indicated that they would feel least comfortable interacting with the speakers if they were their boss. Listener demographic variables did not have a significant main effect on overall ratings, but were significant for some tasks when task was analyzed individually. Specifically, age and frequency of interaction with NNES had an effect on some tasks; however the reliability of this result is affected by sample size. These results suggest a threshold relationship between NES comfort ratings and speaker proficiency level. Additionally, the data suggests that task may be more important than proficiency level in some interactions. A larger sample is needed to better understand the role NES demographic variables may play in level of comfort during NES and NNES interaction.

This study examines the beliefs of foreign language teachers regarding the relative positions of native and nonnative speakers in foreign and second language education. In particular, I am concerned with the idealization of the native speaker in this context and the foreign language anxiety that may occur in nonnative speaker language teachers if they internalize this idealization. I collected data from 29 college-level Arabic and Hebrew teachers using four methods: (1) a questionnaire on their background and beliefs regarding native and nonnative speaker language teachers, (2) a version of the Teacher Foreign Language Anxiety Scale (Horwitz, 2007), (3) a one-on-one interview, and (4) class observation. By and large, study participants believed that native speakers, because of their nativity, have reached higher levels of linguistic and cultural proficiency with relative ease, and as a result are more readily granted credibility as teachers of their native language. Participants believed that nonnative speakers are more empathetic and understanding of their students' problems because of their own experience and efforts as students of the language. With regard to foreign language anxiety, the main sources of anxiety among the nonnative speaker participants were the fear of making mistakes (and losing credibility as a result), of not having the authority to speak on cultural issues, of not being hired when competing with native speakers, and of addressing professional audiences. Native speakers feared that they cannot anticipate or understand as easily as nonnative speaker teachers the difficulties their students have in learning their language, because they cannot relate to their experiences in the same way. Neither group, however, reported feeling particularly anxious overall. I argue that anxiety was minimal for both groups because of specific steps that participants have taken to overcome the perceived disadvantages of their group and thereby bolster their confidence. Participants reported gaining confidence through some combination of the following factors: (1) gaining experience and education, (2) improving their linguistic and cultural proficiency, (3) presenting the persona of a credible language teacher through extra preparation and language choices, (4) receiving external validation, and (5) realizing that everyone can learn from and teach others. / text

Abstract : In the contemporary world, English has become the international language in which most intercultural communication is conducted (Seidlhofer, 2011). The number of speakers using English as a foreign or second language (L2) outnumbers the number of native speakers of the language six times (Crystal, 2003) and, accordingly, English is used more commonly as a Lingua Franca in the international context than to communicate with its native speakers (Jenkins, 2007). Because of the global spread of English, there are more people who speak English with a non-native accent. Such accents often trigger a set of stereotypes insofar as it could have negative consequences for the speaker in terms of academic success and employability (Lippi-Green, 1994). From decades of research in social psychology and sociolinguistics, it has been established that accent plays a significant role in how native speakers perceive non-native speakers of English (Garrett, 2010). However, little has been done in exploring how non-native speakers of English view their own accent and judge acceptability of other non-native English accents. Therefore, this study addressed the need for further research focusing on non-native students’ attitudes towards Arabic- and Chinese-accented English in an English Intensive Program at an English-speaking university in Montreal. This study employed the verbal guise technique from the field of social psychology to elicit spontaneous reactions to L2 accented speech with two levels of first language (L1) influence. Unlike other verbal guise studies, this study did not include a native speaker sample for comparison. We believed our participants’ potential negative attitudes to L2-accented speech would be attenuated by the reference frame effect. To explain and clarify verbal guise test results, we also conducted semi-structured interviews. The results show that the respondents displayed a relatively low level of solidarity with Chinese and Arabic accents in English. Notwithstanding relatively low solidarity ratings given to the accented voices, they were still higher than the evaluations documented in the literature. In addition, high status ratings were found for non-native speakers despite the fact that they were recognized as such. This suggests that in addition to the positive effect triggered by the lack of inclusion of native speaker accents, there might be some contextual factors at play. We found that the participants were harsher in their ratings when the voices represented the more formal domain of higher education but more lenient when they referred to informal settings. From our data, it is also evident that non-segmentals play an important role in language attitudes. The female speakers who approximated their rhythm patterns and intonation contours to those of a native speaker received higher ratings on all the traits in our data. We believe that, if we want them to serve the needs of international students, these often ambivalent attitudes should be considered in the choice of a classroom pronunciation model, and in the development of pronunciation materials. / Résumé : Dans le monde contemporain, l’anglais est devenu la langue internationale utilisée pour la plupart des communications interculturelles (Seidlhofer, 2011). Le nombre de locuteurs utilisant l’anglais comme langue étrangère ou langue seconde est six fois plus important que le nombre de locuteurs natifs (Crystal, 2003). L’anglais est plus souvent utilisé comme Lingua Franca dans un contexte international que pour communiquer avec des locuteurs natifs (Jenkins, 2007). A cause de cette diffusion globale de l’anglais, la plupart des gens qui parlent anglais ont un accent non-natif. Ces accents déclenchent souvent une panoplie de stéréotypes qui peuvent avoir des conséquences négatives sur l’employabilité ou la réussite professionnelle des locuteurs (Lippi-Green, 1994). Des décennies de recherche en psychologie sociale et sociolinguistique ont reconnu que l’accent joue un rôle significatif sur la perception des locuteurs non-natifs par les locuteurs natifs (Garrett, 2010). Cependant, peu d’études se sont penchées sur la façon dont les locuteurs non-natifs perçoivent leur propre accent et jugent l’acceptabilité des autres accents non-natifs. Par conséquent, la présente étude se concentre sur les attitudes des étudiants internationaux du programme d’anglais intensif d’une université anglophone montréalaise envers les accents arabes et chinois en anglais. Cette étude utilise la technique de locuteur masqué employée dans le domaine de la psychologie sociale pour déclencher des réactions spontanées à un discours de langue seconde accentué par deux niveaux d’influence de la langue maternelle. Contrairement aux autres études utilisant la technique de locuteur masqué, cette étude n’inclus pas de discours de locuteurs natifs à des fins de comparaison. Nous pensons que les attitudes négatives potentielles pourraient être atténuées par l’effet de cadre de référence. Pour expliquer et clarifier les résultats de la technique de locuteur masqué, nous avons également mené des entrevues semi-dirigées. Les résultats montrent que les participants expriment un niveau de solidarité relativement faible envers les accents arabes et chinois en anglais. Pourtant, ce niveau de solidarité est tout de même plus haut que les études reportées dans la littérature. D’autre part, le statut social des locuteurs non-natifs a été évalué positivement malgré que les locuteurs aient été reconnus comme non-natifs. Ceci suggère qu’en plus d’un effet positif déclenché par l’exclusion des accents natifs, certains facteurs contextuels peuvent avoir influencé les résultats. Nous avons trouvé que les personnes interrogées notaient plus sévèrement les voix suggérant un niveau d’éducation élevé, mais étaient plus clémentes envers les voix faisant référence à un contexte informel. De l’analyse des données, il apparait que les non-segmentals jouent un rôle important dans les attitudes langagières. De plus, les locutrices se rapprochant du rythme et de l’intonation des natifs ont reçu des évaluations supérieures sur tous les traits. Nous pensons que ces attitudes souvent ambivalentes devraient être considérées dans le choix du modèle d’enseignement et dans le développement de nouveaux supports d’apprentissage de la prononciation pour les étudiants internationaux.

The blue catfish, Ictalurus furcatus (Ictaluridae), is ranked among the most invasive, nonnative species of concern in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. This species, intentionally introduced to three major tributaries and a number of impoundments between 1974 and 1989 for sport fishing, has spread into three additional tributaries. Using samples from the introduced tributary populations as a baseline, we evaluated microsatellite genetic variation in light of demographic and ecological data to elucidate the potential sources of the invasive I. furcatus populations. In general, the populations surveyed in the Chesapeake Bay watershed were considerably more inbred (F ranged from 0.03 - 0.27) than four native populations (all F = 0.03) and they exhibited 12% lower allelic diversity than native populations, showing evidence consistent with a founder effect. Lack of evidence for significant bottlenecks combined with high effective migration rates suggested that there may be a great deal more movement of this species within the Bay than was previously thought. Two proposed scenarios for expansion (dispersal from introduced populations and intentional surreptitious introductions) were evaluated. Although not inconceivable, genetic evidence did not support the Bubba mechanism as the primary mode of expansion and dispersal was found to be the most probable mode underlying the recent range expansion. However, a number of characteristics of the population genetic and mixed stock analyses indicate that a separate scenario, escapement from impoundments, is worth investigating as a substantial source of the expansion. The study has important implications for ecosystem-based management because it is the first application of mixed stock analysis to an invasive species.

A presente tese se ocupa da percepção fônica de línguas não nativas e tem como objetivo repensar as premissas básicas do PERCEPTUAL ASSIMILATION MODEL-L2 [PAM-L2 (BEST; TYLER, 2007)] no que diz respeito aos seus eixos cognitivo, fônico e filosófico. De acordo com os proponentes do modelo, (i) a percepção da fala não nativa dispensa mecanismos cognitivos no que se refere a representações mentais ou processos inferenciais; (ii) a unidade de análise do evento perceptual, em termos de fala, é o gesto articulatório; e (iii) o acesso às informações disponíveis no mundo é direto, garantido pela atuação dos sentidos como nossos próprios sistemas perceptuais. Julgamos que tais premissas são limitadas e incoerentes com o objeto de investigação dos autores e argumentamos, portanto, que os eixos cognitivo, fônico e filosófico do modelo devam ser vislumbrados sobre um ponto de vista alternativo. Quanto ao primeiro eixo, defendemos que o evento perceptual seja concebido essencialmente como um fenômeno cognitivo, criado e gerenciado pelo encéfalo, que envolve abstrações, representações mentais e inferências acerca dos objetos do mundo. Em relação ao segundo eixo, julgamos que o tratamento acústico-articulatório (ALBANO, 2001) à unidade gestual seja mais apropriado à percepção de elementos fônicos não nativos, diferindo do tratamento articulatório (BROWMAN; GOLDSTEIN, 1989, 1992) que reside originalmente no modelo. No que diz respeito ao terceiro eixo, adotamos a posição realista indireta (JACKSON, 1977, 2010) como sendo aquela que abarca de modo mais adequado a percepção das unidades fônicas não nativas, em detrimento do realismo direto (J. GIBSON, 1966, 1986). Decorrentes de nosso refinamento teórico, questões adicionais à percepção fônica não nativa são endereçadas, as quais concernem à falsa dicotomia L2 VS. LE, à influência do sistema grafêmico sobre a percepção fônica e à formação de novas categorias fônicas a serviço do idioma-alvo. Discutimos, também, os aspectos metodológicos de alguns estudos perceptuais, assim como suas implicações para uma nova caracterização do modelo, e ponderamos sobre o delineamento, o tipo de conhecimento de base testado (língua materna ou não nativa) e o objetivo de cada tarefa perceptual a ser empregada em ambiente laboratorial. / This Doctoral Dissertation addresses the phonic perception of non-native languages and aims to rethink the central tenets of the PERCEPTUAL ASSIMILATION MODEL-L2 [PAM-L2 (BEST; TYLER, 2007)] with respect to its cognitive, phonic and philosophical spheres. According to the proponents of the model, (i) the perception of non-native speech disregards any cognitive mechanisms related to mental representations or inferential processes; (ii) the unit for analyzing perceptual events, in terms of speech, corresponds to the articulatory gesture; and (iii) we have direct access to the information available in the world, since our senses act as our own perceptual systems. We argue that these premises are limited and inconsistent with the research object of the authors and, thus, we assume that the cognitive, phonic and philosophical spheres of the model should be glimpsed from an alternative point of view. As for the first sphere, we argue that the perceptual event is essentially a cognitive phenomenon, created and managed by the brain, which involves abstractions, mental representations and inferences about the objects of the world. Regarding the second sphere, we state that an acoustic-articulatory treatment (ALBANO, 2001) to the gestural unit is more appropriate to the perception of non-native phonic elements, differing from the articulatory treatment (BROWMAN; GOLDSTEIN, 1989, 1992) that is originally conveyed by the model. With respect to the third sphere, opposing direct realism (J. GIBSON, 1966, 1986), we adopt the indirect realist position (JACKSON, 1977, 2010) as the one that encompasses the perception of non-native phonic units more adequately. Due to our theoretical refinement, we address additional issues to the phonic perception, which concern the false L2 vs. LE dichotomy, the impact of graphical systems on phonic perception, and the formation of new phonic categories at the service of the target language. We discuss methodological aspects of perceptual studies, as well as their implications for a new characterization of the model, and we also consider the design, the type of knowledge tested (native or nonnative language) and the purpose of each perceptual task to be used in a laboratory environment.

Since the mid 90s, an increasing number of researchers have adopted a sociocultural theory (SCT) of mind to investigate the social and cognitive functions of language during learner-learner interaction (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). Researchers from an SCT perspective have identified that first languages (L1s) serve important cognitive functions (Alegría de la Colina & García Mayo, 2009; Storch & Aldosari, 2010). Swain and colleagues (Swain, 1995; Swain & Lapkin, 1995, 1998) have also illustrated that languaging, a form of verbalization, facilitates the completion of complex linguistic tasks which leads to second language (L2) development (Swain, Brooks, & Tocalli-Beller, 2002). Moreover, researchers have found that task type impacts language development (Storch & Aldosari, 2010; Storch & Wigglesworth, 2003; Swain & Lapkin, 2001). Due to the growing number of multilingual learners in the world today (Hammarberg, 2010), researchers need to expand the scope of the research to include the role(s) of native and nonnative languages on third language (L3) development. Thus, the purpose of the current multiple case study was to investigate the specific mediating functions of multilingual learners’ languages during four types of collaborative tasks and to explore the relationship between languaging and L3 development. A 16-week classroom-based study was conducted in a university French as a foreign language classroom in Mexico with four focal participants. The language produced during learner-learner interaction was examined using three types of analysis: (1) each turn was coded for language and for their specific functions; (2) each Language-Related Episode (LRE) was coded for type and for resolution; and (3) accuracy on individual tailor-made posttest items. Findings uncovered a complex picture of task type effects on the specific mediating functions of language as well as complementary functions of L1 and L3 mediation. Results from the analysis of LREs show that task type impacts the occurrence and resolution of LREs. Accuracy scores from the posttests suggest that L1 and L3 mediation promotes L3 development. Findings are in line with the focal participants’ beliefs. The findings that languages serve various social and cognitive functions during task completion are discussed in light of current ideas from an SCT perspective.

The purpose of this dissertation was to investigate the perceptions of preservice teachers toward native and nonnative English speaking (NES and NNES) graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) in English as a second language (ESL) methodology and/or ESL assessment courses at a Southwestern U.S. university. This study also investigated the perceptions of NES and NNES GTAs toward preservice teachers. This study explored the issue of whether preservice teachers are prepared to accept and validate diversity among their instructors which in turn should make them sensitive to diverse learners they will encounter in their future teaching. In the first part of the study, a total of 262 preservice teachers were surveyed. The survey data were collected in spring 2007 and fall 2008. Of the 262 preservice teachers, 20 participated in focus group discussions to provide further insight on their views of NES and NNES GTAs. In the second part of the study, four GTAs participated in a longitudinal study by writing online blog entries after any encounters (positive or negative) they had with their students inside and outside the classroom. The blogs reflected the GTAs? immediate reactions after their classes. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the GTAs. Findings of the first study revealed that preservice teacher perceived NES and NNES GTAs differently. Preservice teachers put a lot of emphasis on the intelligibility of the NNES GTAs. The preservice teachers were ?tolerant? if their NNES spoke English ?clearly?. However, there were some preservice teachers who were dissatisfied with their NNES GTAs due to their possessing a non-mainstream language. Findings of the second study revealed that NNES GTAs faced major challenges in their effort to be recognized as legitimate and competent instructors. Although the GTAs had vastly different personal backgrounds, perceptions, and identities as instructors, common themes or issues emerged from the data: (1) teaching is complex (linguistic, cultural, and racial issues are involved); (2) beliefs about teaching can change; (3) challenges are faced as an ?outsider? instructor; and (4) teaching provides experiences of joy. The study has implications for teacher education programs and training programs offered for international graduate students by universities.