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Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are large macromolecular gateways embedded in the nuclear envelope of Eukaryotic cells that serve to regulate bi-directional trafficking of particles to and from the nucleus. NPCs have been described as creating a selectively permeable barrier mediating the nuclear export of key endogenous cargoes such as mRNA, and pre-ribosomal subunits as well as allow for the nuclear import of nuclear proteins and some viral particles. Remarkably, other particles that are not qualified for nucleocytoplasmic transport are repelled from the NPC, unable to translocate. The NPC is made up of over 30 unique proteins, each present in multiples of eight copies. The two primary protein components of the NPC can be simplified as scaffold nucleoporins which form the main structure of the NPC and the phenylalanine-glycine (FG) motif containing nucleoporins (FG-Nups) which anchor to the scaffold and together create the permeability barrier within the pore. Advances in fluorescence microscopy techniques including single-molecule and super-resolution microscopy have made it possible to label and visualize the dynamic components of the NPC as well as track the rapid nucleocytoplasmic transport process of importing and exporting cargoes. The focus of this dissertation will be on live cell fluorescence microscopy application in probing the dynamic components of the NPC as well as tracking the processes of nucleocytoplasmic transport. / Biology

<p>Epithelial cell polarisation is a prerequisite for the branching morphogenesis in several organs. Differential screening techniques were used to identify genes, which are upregulated during induction of epithelium in early kidney development. This investigation revealed two separate genes, Nuclear localising protein 1 (Nulp1), a previously undescribed gene with sequence characteristics of the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor family, and glycoprotein 210 (gp210, POM210), an integral membrane protein constituent of the nuclear pore complex (NPC). Of these, gp210 was found to be upreglated during conversion of mesenchyme to epithelium. </p><p>The nuclear envelope, which demarcates the nuclear region in the eukaryotic cell, consists of an inner and an outer membrane that are fused at the locations for NPCs. These large macromolecular assemblages are tube like structures connecting the cytoplasmic and nuclear compartments of the cell. NPCs serve as the only conduits for exchange of molecular information between these cellular rooms. Electron microscopy techniques have revealed detailed information about the NPC architecture. A number of proteins (nucleoporins) have been characterised and embodied as components of the NPC structure. Active, energy dependent nucleocytoplasmic transport of RNAs and proteins is mediated by a group of soluble receptor proteins, collectively termed karyopherins. </p><p>Gp210 has been suggested to be important for nuclear pore formation. Nevertheless, our analyses showed a limited expression pattern of gp210, with its mRNA and protein largely confined to epithelial cells in the mouse embryo. Furthermore, in several cell lines, gp210 was undetectable. The expression pattern of gp210 was not synchronised with some other nucleoporins, indicating NPC heterogeneity. Characterisation of the structure of the human gp210 gene, including its promoter region, gave insight about possible cell-type specific gene regulatory mechanisms. </p><p>Regulation of molecular traffic between the nucleus and the cytoplasm leads to transcriptional control. Cell specific configuration of the NPC structure, due to diffential expression of gp210, could be involved in this control. Gp210 could be of importance for the development of epithelial cell polarisation.</p>

Epithelial cell polarisation is a prerequisite for the branching morphogenesis in several organs. Differential screening techniques were used to identify genes, which are upregulated during induction of epithelium in early kidney development. This investigation revealed two separate genes, Nuclear localising protein 1 (Nulp1), a previously undescribed gene with sequence characteristics of the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor family, and glycoprotein 210 (gp210, POM210), an integral membrane protein constituent of the nuclear pore complex (NPC). Of these, gp210 was found to be upreglated during conversion of mesenchyme to epithelium. The nuclear envelope, which demarcates the nuclear region in the eukaryotic cell, consists of an inner and an outer membrane that are fused at the locations for NPCs. These large macromolecular assemblages are tube like structures connecting the cytoplasmic and nuclear compartments of the cell. NPCs serve as the only conduits for exchange of molecular information between these cellular rooms. Electron microscopy techniques have revealed detailed information about the NPC architecture. A number of proteins (nucleoporins) have been characterised and embodied as components of the NPC structure. Active, energy dependent nucleocytoplasmic transport of RNAs and proteins is mediated by a group of soluble receptor proteins, collectively termed karyopherins. Gp210 has been suggested to be important for nuclear pore formation. Nevertheless, our analyses showed a limited expression pattern of gp210, with its mRNA and protein largely confined to epithelial cells in the mouse embryo. Furthermore, in several cell lines, gp210 was undetectable. The expression pattern of gp210 was not synchronised with some other nucleoporins, indicating NPC heterogeneity. Characterisation of the structure of the human gp210 gene, including its promoter region, gave insight about possible cell-type specific gene regulatory mechanisms. Regulation of molecular traffic between the nucleus and the cytoplasm leads to transcriptional control. Cell specific configuration of the NPC structure, due to diffential expression of gp210, could be involved in this control. Gp210 could be of importance for the development of epithelial cell polarisation.

Background/Aims: A 33-year-old man was referred for the first time to the Division of Neurology because of the presence and progression of neurological symptoms. Dysphagia, weakness, reduced tear production, and nasal speech were present. In order to point the attention of late-onset triple A syndrome we describe this case and review the literature. Methods: Hormonal and biochemical evaluation, Schirmer test, tilt test and genetic testing for AAAS gene mutations. Results: Late-onset triple A syndrome caused by a novel homozygous missense mutation in the AAAS gene (A167V in exon 6) was diagnosed at least 17 years after symptom onset. Conclusions: The association between typical signs and symptoms of triple A syndrome should suggest the diagnosis even if they manifest in adulthood. The diagnosis should be confirmed by Schirmer test, endocrine testing (both basal and dynamic), genetic analysis, and detailed gastroenterological and neurological evaluations. Awareness of the possible late onset of the disease and of diagnosis in adulthood is still poor among clinicians, the acquaintance with the disease is more common among pediatricians. The importance of an adequate multidisciplinary clinical approach, dynamic testing for early diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency and periodical reassessment of adrenal function are emphasized. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Autosomal recessive triple A syndrome is caused by mutations in the AAAS gene encoding the protein ALADIN. The disorder manifests with the triad of adrenocorticotropin-resistant adrenal insufficiency, achalasia of the stomach cardia and impaired tear production (alacrima) in combination with progressive neurological impairment of the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems. ALADIN is part of the nuclear pore complex acting as a scaffold nucleoporin. In this work the role of ALADIN in the human adrenocortical tumour cell line NCI-H295R1 was investigated. These cells were engineered to either over-express or down-regulate AAAS by inducible stable transfection. Alterations in steroidogenic gene expression and functional consequences were determined. In addition, the role of ALADIN on cell viability and oxidative stress response was analysed. Using both the human adrenal NCI-H295R1-TR AAAS knock-down and over-expression models the potential impairment of the nuclear import of aprataxin, DNA ligase 1 and ferritin heavy chain 1 was investigated. For this YFP-specific vectors transiently transfected into the cell lines were employed. The findings indicate that AAAS knock-down induces a down-regulation of genes coding for type II microsomal cytochrome P450 hydroxylases CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 and their electron donor enzyme cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase, thereby decreasing biosynthesis of precursor metabolites required for glucocorticoid and androgen production. Furthermore I demonstrate that ALADIN deficiency leads to increased susceptibility to oxidative stress and alteration in redox homeostasis after paraquat treatment. Finally, I show significantly impaired nuclear import of DNA ligase 1, aprataxin and ferritin heavy chain 1 in ALADIN knock-down cells. I conclude that down-regulating ALADIN results in decreased oxidative stress response leading to alteration in steroidogenesis, highlighting the knock-down cell model as an important in vitro tool for studying the adrenal phenotype in triple A syndrome. In an approach to identify new interaction partners of ALADIN, co-immunoprecipitation followed by proteome analyses using mass spectrometry was conducted in a GFP-ALADIN over-expression model using the human adrenocortical tumor cell line NCI-H295R. These results were verified in co-immunoprecipitation assays of endogenous ALADIN using NCI-H295R wild-type cells. The results suggest a possible interaction between ALADIN and microsomal flavoprotein cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase and progesterone receptor membrane compartment 2. Co-localisation analyses of these findings were done using immunofluorescence. The data are suggestive for an involvement of ALADIN in the export of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins. Regulation of adrenocortical steroidogenesis is complex and there is increasing evidence that oxidative stress due to ROS accumulation and mitochondria are significantly involved. Furthermore, there may be an important cross-talk between functional organelles comprising nucleus, ER and mitochondria which presumably involves lipid metabolism. The goal of this work was to elucidate the function of ALADIN for the cellular oxidative stress response and its possible consequences for adrenocortical steroidogenesis in triple A syndrome patients. / Mutationen im AAAS Gen verursachen die autosomal rezessive Krankheit Triple-A-Syndrom. AAAS kodiert das Nukleoporin ALADIN, welches Bestandteil des nukleären Porenkomplexes ist. Phänotypische Charakteristika des Triple-A-Syndroms sind Nebennierenrinden-Insuffizienz, Achalasie des unteren Speiseröhrenschließmuskels und eine fehlende Tränenproduktion (Alakrimie). Diese Symptome sind kombiniert mit progredienten neurologischen Störungen des zentralen, peripheren und autonomen Nervensystems. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Rolle von ALADIN in der humanen Karzinom-Zelllinie NCI-H295R1 untersucht. Diese Nebennierenrinden-Zellen wurden stabil transfiziert und mit einem induzierbaren Expressionssystem modifiziert, so dass sie AAAS entweder überexprimierten oder herunterregulierten. In NCI-H295R1-Zellen wurden Veränderungen der Genexpression von Enzymen der Steroidogenese und funktionelle Konsequenzen der Überexpression oder Herunterregulation von ALADIN gemessen. Des Weiteren wurde die Rolle von ALADIN auf die Zellviabilität und die Redox-Homöostase analysiert. ALADIN überexprimierende und herunterregulierte Zellen wurden verwendet, um die potentielle Behinderung des nukleären Imports von Proteinen zu untersuchen, welche den Zellkern gegen oxidativen Stress schützen (z.B. Aprataxin, DNA-Ligase 1 und Ferritin Heavy Chain 1). Dazu wurden YFP-spezifische Vektoren transient in diese Zellen gebracht. Mit den Ergebnissen dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass die Herunterregulation von AAAS eine Verminderung der Genexpression von CYP17A1 und CYP21A2 und deren Elektronendonor Cytochrom P450 Oxidoreduktase bewirken. Die Biosynthese der Vorläufermetabolite von Kortisol und Aldosteron ist in diesen Zellen ebenfalls vermindert. Des Weiteren zeigen die ALADIN-defizienten NCIH295R1-Zellen eine erhöhte Sensitivität gegenüber oxidativem Stress und eine veränderte Redox-Homöostase nach der Behandlung mit Paraquat. Darüber hinaus konnte in dieser Studie auch gezeigt werden, dass herunterregulierte ALADIN NCI-H295R1-Zellen einen verminderten Zellkernimport von Aprataxin, DNA-Ligase 1 und Ferritin heavy chain 1 besitzen. Aus diesen Ergebnissen kann geschlussfolgert werden, dass ALADIN-defiziente Nebennierenzellen eine verminderte Stressantwort auf oxidativen Stress besitzen; dies führt schlussendlich zu einer veränderten Steroidogenese. Das beschriebene ALADIN knock-down Modell in NCI-H295R1-Zellen ist ein wichtiges in vitro Werkzeug, um die Pathogenese der Nebennierenveränderungen im Triple-A-Syndrom zu erforschen. Neue Interaktionspartner von ALADIN wurden mit Hilfe von Co-Immunpräzipitation gefolgt von Proteom-Analysen durch Massenspektrometrie in einem GFP-ALADIN Überexpressionsmodell in NCI-H295R charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse wurden durch Experimente auf endogenem Niveau in NCI-H295R-Wildtypzellen verifiziert. Mit diesen Daten wird in dieser Arbeit erstmals eine Interaktion zwischen ALADIN und dem Flavoprotein Cytochrom P450 Oxidoreduktase und Progesterone Receptor Membrane Compartment 2 nachgewiesen. Diese Ergebnisse wurden mit Co-Lokalisierungsanalysen durch Immunfluoreszenzfärbung von ALADIN und Cytochrome P450 Oxidoreduktase ergänzt. Außerdem gibt die Arbeit Hinweise darauf, dass ALADIN als Nukleoporin an dem nuklearen Export mitochondrialer Vorläuferproteine beteiligt ist. Die Regulation der Steroidogenese in der Nebennierenrinde ist komplex und es existieren zahlreiche Hinweise darauf, dass oxidativer Stress aufgrund der Ansammlung reaktiver Sauerstoffradikale und. dass die Mitochondrien involviert sind. Außerdem ist ein funktionelles Zusammenspiel verschiedener Organellen, darunter Nukleus, ER und Mitochondrien, von großer Bedeutung. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Identifizierung der Funktion von ALADIN in der zellulären oxidativen Stressantwort und die möglichen Konsequenzen für die Steroidogenese in der Nebennierenrinden in Triple-A-Syndrom-Patienten.

Chez les trypanosomatidés, on observe un double cycle cellulaire : karyokinèse et cytodiérèse sont synchronisées mais indépendantes. La membrane nucléaire persiste au cours de la mitose dite fermée. Les modalités de réplication de l'ADN et de sa régulation, de même que plusieurs étapes de la ségrégation des chromosomes, restent non élucidées : le kinétochore est composé de protéines très atypiques (KKTs), et il existe un déficit du nombre de kinétochores par rapport au nombre de chromosomes. D'autre part, la constitution des pôles du fuseau mitotique associés à la membrane nucléaire est totalement inconnue. Les nucléoporines sont des protéines conservées au cours de l'évolution, principalement impliquées dans la constitution des pores nucléaires et le trafic entre le noyau et le cytoplasme, mais également de plus en plus considérées comme des acteurs importants de la dynamique chromatinienne. En utilisant des vecteurs d'expression protéique sous forme fusionnée à la GFP, nous avons déterminé la localisation subcellulaire de 15 nucléoporines chez Leishmania major. Si la plupart de ces nucléoporines se localisent à la membrane nucléaire, plusieurs d'entre elles ont des localisations secondaires qui peuvent être prédominantes. Ainsi la nucléoporine Mlp2 est préférentiellement localisée au niveau du kinétochore et, en fin de mitose, à l'extrémité du fuseau mitotique chez les deux parasites Leishmania major et Trypanosoma brucei. En accord avec la localisation de TbMlp2 au kinétochore chez T. brucei, où les centromères sont identifiés, nous avons fréquemment détecté TbMlp2 à proximité des séquences centromériques, elles-mêmes détectées par FISH en périphérie du nucléole. Egalement grâce à la technique de FISH, nous montrons que l'inhibition de l'expression de TbMlp2 par ARN-interférence perturbe la distribution des chromosomes au cours de la mitose, conduisant à une aneuploïdie. Paradoxalement, cette inhibition n'a aucun effet sur la croissance des cellules. Nous présentons également le cas singulier de Mlp1, dont la localisation chez T. brucei dépend du site d'intégration choisi. Cette localisation sera discutée à la lumière des phénotypes observés lors de l'inhibition de son expression. / Trypanosomatid parasites exhibit two independent though coordinated (nuclear and mitochondrial) cell cycles, and a closed mitosis, of which many constituents and processes are unknown. In particular, most steps of the chromosome segregation remain elusive: the kinetochore is composed of atypical proteins called KKT and the number of kinetochores is deficient in relation to the number of chromosomes. Moreover, the constitution of the nuclear membrane-associated mitotic spindle poles is unknown. Nucleoporins are evolutionary conserved proteins mainly involved in the constitution of the nuclear pores and trafficking between the nucleus and cytoplasm, but are also increasingly viewed as main actors in chromatin dynamics. Using GFP-fused proteins, we determined the cellular localization of the 15 nucleoporins in Leishmania major. If most of these nucleoporins localized at the nuclear membrane, some of them exhibited secondary locations which are predominant in a few cases. Thus, the nucleoporin Mlp2 localized preferentially at the kinetochore and, at the end of mitosis, at the mitotic spindle poles in both parasites Leishmania major and Trypanosoma brucei. Consistent with the localisation of TbMlp2 to the kinetochore in T. brucei, where centromeres are identified, TbMlp2 was frequently detected in the vicinity of the centromeric sequences in the periphery of the nucleolus. The use of FISH allowed us to show that RNAi knockdowns of TbMlp2 disturbed the distribution of chromosomes during mitosis, leading to aneuploidy. Paradoxically RNAi knockdowns of TbMlp2 had no effect on cell growth. We will also present the singular case of Mlp1 whose location is dependent on the integration site in T. brucei. This location will be discussed in the light of the phenotypes observed after inhibition of its expression.

Autosomal recessive triple A syndrome is caused by mutations in the AAAS gene encoding the protein ALADIN. The disorder manifests with the triad of adrenocorticotropin-resistant adrenal insufficiency, achalasia of the stomach cardia and impaired tear production (alacrima) in combination with progressive neurological impairment of the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems. ALADIN is part of the nuclear pore complex acting as a scaffold nucleoporin. In this work the role of ALADIN in the human adrenocortical tumour cell line NCI-H295R1 was investigated. These cells were engineered to either over-express or down-regulate AAAS by inducible stable transfection. Alterations in steroidogenic gene expression and functional consequences were determined. In addition, the role of ALADIN on cell viability and oxidative stress response was analysed. Using both the human adrenal NCI-H295R1-TR AAAS knock-down and over-expression models the potential impairment of the nuclear import of aprataxin, DNA ligase 1 and ferritin heavy chain 1 was investigated. For this YFP-specific vectors transiently transfected into the cell lines were employed. The findings indicate that AAAS knock-down induces a down-regulation of genes coding for type II microsomal cytochrome P450 hydroxylases CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 and their electron donor enzyme cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase, thereby decreasing biosynthesis of precursor metabolites required for glucocorticoid and androgen production. Furthermore I demonstrate that ALADIN deficiency leads to increased susceptibility to oxidative stress and alteration in redox homeostasis after paraquat treatment. Finally, I show significantly impaired nuclear import of DNA ligase 1, aprataxin and ferritin heavy chain 1 in ALADIN knock-down cells. I conclude that down-regulating ALADIN results in decreased oxidative stress response leading to alteration in steroidogenesis, highlighting the knock-down cell model as an important in vitro tool for studying the adrenal phenotype in triple A syndrome. In an approach to identify new interaction partners of ALADIN, co-immunoprecipitation followed by proteome analyses using mass spectrometry was conducted in a GFP-ALADIN over-expression model using the human adrenocortical tumor cell line NCI-H295R. These results were verified in co-immunoprecipitation assays of endogenous ALADIN using NCI-H295R wild-type cells. The results suggest a possible interaction between ALADIN and microsomal flavoprotein cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase and progesterone receptor membrane compartment 2. Co-localisation analyses of these findings were done using immunofluorescence. The data are suggestive for an involvement of ALADIN in the export of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins. Regulation of adrenocortical steroidogenesis is complex and there is increasing evidence that oxidative stress due to ROS accumulation and mitochondria are significantly involved. Furthermore, there may be an important cross-talk between functional organelles comprising nucleus, ER and mitochondria which presumably involves lipid metabolism. The goal of this work was to elucidate the function of ALADIN for the cellular oxidative stress response and its possible consequences for adrenocortical steroidogenesis in triple A syndrome patients. / Mutationen im AAAS Gen verursachen die autosomal rezessive Krankheit Triple-A-Syndrom. AAAS kodiert das Nukleoporin ALADIN, welches Bestandteil des nukleären Porenkomplexes ist. Phänotypische Charakteristika des Triple-A-Syndroms sind Nebennierenrinden-Insuffizienz, Achalasie des unteren Speiseröhrenschließmuskels und eine fehlende Tränenproduktion (Alakrimie). Diese Symptome sind kombiniert mit progredienten neurologischen Störungen des zentralen, peripheren und autonomen Nervensystems. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Rolle von ALADIN in der humanen Karzinom-Zelllinie NCI-H295R1 untersucht. Diese Nebennierenrinden-Zellen wurden stabil transfiziert und mit einem induzierbaren Expressionssystem modifiziert, so dass sie AAAS entweder überexprimierten oder herunterregulierten. In NCI-H295R1-Zellen wurden Veränderungen der Genexpression von Enzymen der Steroidogenese und funktionelle Konsequenzen der Überexpression oder Herunterregulation von ALADIN gemessen. Des Weiteren wurde die Rolle von ALADIN auf die Zellviabilität und die Redox-Homöostase analysiert. ALADIN überexprimierende und herunterregulierte Zellen wurden verwendet, um die potentielle Behinderung des nukleären Imports von Proteinen zu untersuchen, welche den Zellkern gegen oxidativen Stress schützen (z.B. Aprataxin, DNA-Ligase 1 und Ferritin Heavy Chain 1). Dazu wurden YFP-spezifische Vektoren transient in diese Zellen gebracht. Mit den Ergebnissen dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass die Herunterregulation von AAAS eine Verminderung der Genexpression von CYP17A1 und CYP21A2 und deren Elektronendonor Cytochrom P450 Oxidoreduktase bewirken. Die Biosynthese der Vorläufermetabolite von Kortisol und Aldosteron ist in diesen Zellen ebenfalls vermindert. Des Weiteren zeigen die ALADIN-defizienten NCIH295R1-Zellen eine erhöhte Sensitivität gegenüber oxidativem Stress und eine veränderte Redox-Homöostase nach der Behandlung mit Paraquat. Darüber hinaus konnte in dieser Studie auch gezeigt werden, dass herunterregulierte ALADIN NCI-H295R1-Zellen einen verminderten Zellkernimport von Aprataxin, DNA-Ligase 1 und Ferritin heavy chain 1 besitzen. Aus diesen Ergebnissen kann geschlussfolgert werden, dass ALADIN-defiziente Nebennierenzellen eine verminderte Stressantwort auf oxidativen Stress besitzen; dies führt schlussendlich zu einer veränderten Steroidogenese. Das beschriebene ALADIN knock-down Modell in NCI-H295R1-Zellen ist ein wichtiges in vitro Werkzeug, um die Pathogenese der Nebennierenveränderungen im Triple-A-Syndrom zu erforschen. Neue Interaktionspartner von ALADIN wurden mit Hilfe von Co-Immunpräzipitation gefolgt von Proteom-Analysen durch Massenspektrometrie in einem GFP-ALADIN Überexpressionsmodell in NCI-H295R charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse wurden durch Experimente auf endogenem Niveau in NCI-H295R-Wildtypzellen verifiziert. Mit diesen Daten wird in dieser Arbeit erstmals eine Interaktion zwischen ALADIN und dem Flavoprotein Cytochrom P450 Oxidoreduktase und Progesterone Receptor Membrane Compartment 2 nachgewiesen. Diese Ergebnisse wurden mit Co-Lokalisierungsanalysen durch Immunfluoreszenzfärbung von ALADIN und Cytochrome P450 Oxidoreduktase ergänzt. Außerdem gibt die Arbeit Hinweise darauf, dass ALADIN als Nukleoporin an dem nuklearen Export mitochondrialer Vorläuferproteine beteiligt ist. Die Regulation der Steroidogenese in der Nebennierenrinde ist komplex und es existieren zahlreiche Hinweise darauf, dass oxidativer Stress aufgrund der Ansammlung reaktiver Sauerstoffradikale und. dass die Mitochondrien involviert sind. Außerdem ist ein funktionelles Zusammenspiel verschiedener Organellen, darunter Nukleus, ER und Mitochondrien, von großer Bedeutung. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Identifizierung der Funktion von ALADIN in der zellulären oxidativen Stressantwort und die möglichen Konsequenzen für die Steroidogenese in der Nebennierenrinden in Triple-A-Syndrom-Patienten.