La modélisation des transferts thermiques en écoulements diphasiques est l'une des pierres angulaires de l'étude de la sûreté des réacteurs nucléaires. À l'échelle du réacteur, elle repose sur des corrélations expérimentales. L'utilisation croissante de la mécanique des fluides numérique pour les études de sûreté renforce la demande d'expertise dans les outils de simulation, en particulier du point de vue de la modélisation. En soutien aux modèles moyennés à deux fluides, nous souhaitons apporter des informations de fermetures locales pour considérer la physique des transferts interfaciaux et les effets 3D. Pour cela, comme la résolution directe des équations de bilan locales par SND est trop coûteuse, nous souhaitons développer un outil de SGE diphasique pour modéliser les petites échelles turbulentes et les petites déformations interfaciales. Comme le changement de phase est à l'origine de l'écoulement diphasique pour les applications visées, nous étendons dans ce mémoire le modèle Interfaces and Subgrid-Scales (ISS, Toutant et al., 2009a) aux interfaces avec changement de phase, pour lesquelles l'hypothèse de continuité de la vitesse à l'interface n'est plus valable. Le suivi explicite des interfaces permet d'évaluer précisément les transferts comme le taux de transfert de masse. Dans un premier temps, nous établissons une description mésoscopique du problème où l'interface est diffuse en filtrant les équations locales instantanées et en modélisant les transferts sous-filtres aux interfaces. Les principales difficultés de modélisations proviennent (i) de la détermination de la vitesse de l'interface, (ii) de l'effet de la discontinuité des vitesses sur les modèles sous-maille, (iii) de la discontinuité du flux et (iv) de la condition de saturation de l'interface. Les modèles proposés sont qualifiés a priori en observant leur prédiction par filtrage explicite de solutions de SND. Dans un deuxième temps, nous établissons un système macroscopique discontinu équivalent au problème diffus pour bénéficier de l'expertise acquise pour les méthodes numériques de SND. Aux interfaces, les modèles sous-maille sont concentrés pour modifier les conditions de raccord entre les phases. Les conditions de saut ainsi déterminées montrent que la vitesse de l'interface est affectée par la courbure et par le saut de vitesse. Un saut de vitesse tangentielle est introduit pour modéliser la couche limite dynamique. Sur le plan thermique, nous retrouvons la condition de saturation caractéristique du changement de phase ; le taux de changement de phase ne dépend plus uniquement du saut de flux conductif mais, pour pallier la sous-résolution de la couche limite thermique au voisinage de l'interface, nous proposons de lui ajouter la contribution sous-maille des corrélations vitesse/température. Comme en SGE monophasique, le gain apporté par la modélisation ISS permet d'envisager l'utilisation de simulations fines pour des problèmes appliqués. C'est la première étape d'une démarche multi-échelle pour fournir des fermetures aux modèles moyennés à deux fluides. Nous illustrons son potentiel sur une SND multi-bulles complexe. / Modeling heat and mass transfer in two-phase flows with phase-change is crucial in many industrial studies including nuclear safety. Only averaged two-phase flow models can simulate such complex flows. Their accuracy depends in particular on closure laws for interfacial mass, momentum, and energy transfers that often rely on experimental correlations. Supporting averaged models, the goal of this thesis is to bring local closure information from finer simulations to consider 3D-effects and interfacial transfers more accurately. In this prospect, as direct resolution of the local balance equations is too expensive, we seek for a two-phase equivalent of Large Eddy Simulation (LES) in order to tackle simulations with enough bubbles to extract statistics needed in averaged models. Applying a spatial filter, we aim at modeling subgrid turbulence and interfacial transfers. The largest turbulent scales and interface deformations are captured because the filter size is chosen in-between the Kolmogorov scale and the bubble size. Because of the importance of the phase-change phenomena, this thesis extend the Interfaces and Subgrid Scales (ISS) model proposed by Toutant et al. (2009a) to non-material interfaces, i. e., with phase-change. Explicit interface tracking is valuable to accurately estimate interfacial transfers such as the phase-change rate. In the first part of this document, we establish a smeared-interface description of two-phase flows. Sub-grid transfers and interfacial deformations are modeled using the modified Bardina et al. (1983) scale-similarity hypothesis. Main modeling issues comes from (i) the specific interfacial velocity, (ii) the velocity and the temperature gradient discontinuities at the interface and (iii) the saturation condition of the interface. Models are validated using reference data from DNS. In the second up-scaling step, we transform interfacial subgrid models into source terms in the jump conditions in order to establish an equivalent discontinuous model thus benefitting from the knowledge acquired in DNS numerical methods. Transfers between phases are modified and the interfacial velocity is redefined considering the time evolution of curvature and the velocity jump at the interface. As a result, the normal momentum jump is modified. A tangential velocity jump is also introduced to cancel out the sub-resolution of the boundary layer. From a thermal point of view, the classical saturation condition is recovered ; the phase-change rate not only depends on the conduction heat flux but a contribution from the subgrid velocity and temperature correlations must be added to account for the poor resolution of the thermal boundary layer. As for single-phase LES, ISS modeling enables local-scale simulations of industrial configurations. It is the first step of a multi-scale approach towards turbulent bubbly flows. In this thesis, we illustrates how to bridge the gap between DNS and averaged descriptions from reference results obtained on condensing bubbles in a pseudo-turbulent subcooled liquid. Averaged quantities are compared with correlations for the condensation sink term used in the two-fluid model. We are able to underline the phase-change enhancement with increasing void fraction. It shows that this path could be used to improve the understanding of the strong two-way coupling between flow dynamics and interfacial heat transfers.

A literatura corrente possui informações limitadas sobre o projeto da área de troca térmica de tanques com jaqueta, serpentina helicoidal, serpentina espiral e chicana tubular vertical, em operação com fluidos não-Newtonianos. A presente tese teve por objetivo principal analisar a transferência de calor, potência consumida e ampliação de escala em tanques com impulsores mecânicos na agitação de fluidos não-Newtonianos com duas superfícies de transmissão de calor, chicana tubular vertical e serpentina em espiral. O trabalho também visou fornecer métodos de ampliação de escala de tanques com agitação para fluidos não-Newtonianos que sigam o modelo reológico da lei das potências. A unidade experimental contemplou dois tanques de acrílico, com volume de 10 litros e 50 litros, respectivamente, chicanas tubulares verticais e serpentina em espiral. Os impulsores mecânicos utilizados foram o axial com 4 pás inclinadas a 45° e o radial turbina com 6 pás planas. Como fluidos utilizaram-se soluções aquosas de carboximetilcelulose (0,5%, 1,0% e 1,5%), solução aquosa de carbopol 940 (1,5%), solução aquosa de sacarose (50%) e água. Todos os experimentos foram conduzidos em batelada. Com os dados obtidos, empregou-se o uso de regressões para a obtenção da Equação de Nusselt, as quais forneceram valores de coeficiente de determinação ajustados entre 0,83 e 0,89 com Reynolds no intervalo de 20 a 405000, Prandtl na faixa de 4 a 6400 e índice reológico do modelo da lei das potências entre 0,45 e 1,00. Observou-se que no aquecimento realizado com a chicana tubular vertical, o impulsor radial forneceu coeficientes de convecção 20% acima quando comparado com o impulsor axial, entretanto o consumo de potência foi cerca de 66% maior em relação ao impulsor axial. No caso da serpentina espiral, o impulsor axial promoveu coeficientes de convecção por volta de 15% superiores em relação ao impulsor radial com um consumo de potência 65% menor. Desse modo, em processos em que não é necessária uma elevada turbulência, recomenda-se o uso do impulsor axial com a serpentina espiral, porém, se o processo demandar uma turbulência significativa, deve-se usar o impulsor radial com a chicana tubular vertical. Em uma última análise, os modelos não-lineares obtidos para ampliação de escala forneceram erros entre 11% e 20% na predição da rotação no tanque industrial, os quais são válidos para Reynolds modificados de Metzner e Otto (1957) na faixa de 20 a 4000 e para fluidos não-Newtonianos pseudoplásticos com índices reológicos entre 0,45 e 1,00. / Current literature has limited information on the design of the thermal exchange area of tanks with jacket, helical coil, spiral coil and vertical tuber baffle, in operation with non-Newtonian fluids. The main purpose of this thesis was to analyze heat transfer, power consumption and scale-up in tanks with mechanical impellers in the agitation of non-Newtonian fluids with two heat transfer surfaces, vertical tube baffle and spiral coil. The work also aimed to provide methods of scale-up tank scale with agitation for non-Newtonian fluids that follow the rheology model of the law of powers. The experimental unit included two acrylic tanks, with a volume of 10 liters and 50 liters, respectively, vertical tube baffles and spiral coil. The mechanical impellers used were the 45° pitched blade turbine (PBT) and the Rushton turbine (RT). Aqueous solutions of carboxymethylcellulose (0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%), aqueous solution of carbopol 940 (1.5%), aqueous solution of sucrose (50%) and water were used as fluids. All the experiments were conducted in batch. With the obtained data, we used the regressions to obtain the Nusselt Equation, which provided coefficient of determination values adjusted between 0.83 and 0.89 with Reynolds in the range of 20 to 405000, Prandtl in the range of 4 to 6400 and rheological index of the power law model between 0.45 and 1.00. It was observed that in the heating performed with the vertical tube baffle, the RT provided convection coefficients 20% higher when compared to the axial impeller, however the power consumption was about 66% higher in relation to the PBT. In the case of the spiral coil, the PBT promoted convection coefficients around 15% higher than the RT with 65% lower power consumption. Thus, in processes where high turbulence is not required, it is recommended to use the PBT with the spiral coil, but if the process requires significant turbulence, the RT must be used with the vertical tubular chassis. In a final analysis, the nonlinear models obtained for scaling provided errors between 11% and 20% in the prediction of rotation in the industrial tank, which are valid for Metzner and Otto (1957) modified Reynolds in the range of 20 to 4000 and for non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids with rheological indexes between 0.45 and 1.00.

In this research, an elastic cylinder that utilized vortex-induced vibration (VIV) was applied to improve convective heat transfer rates by disrupting the thermal boundary layer. Rigid and elastic cylinders were placed across a fluid channel. Vortex shedding around the cylinder led to the periodic vibration of the cylinder. As a result, the flow-structure interaction (FSI) increased the disruption of the thermal boundary layer, and therefore, improved the mixing process at the boundary. This study aims to improve convective heat transfer rate by increasing the perturbation in the fluid flow. A three-dimensional numerical model was constructed to simulate the effects of different flow channel geometries, including a channel with a stationary rigid cylinder, a channel with a elastic cylinder, a channel with two elastic cylinders of the same diameter, and a channel with two elastic cylinders of different diameters. Through the numerical simulations, the channel maximum wall temperature was found to be reduced by approximately 10% with a stationary cylinder and by around 17% when introducing an elastic cylinder in the channel compared with the channel without the cylinder. Channels with two-cylinder conditions were also studied in the current research. The additional cylinder with the same diameter in the fluid channel only reduced the surface wall temperature by 3% compared to the channel without any cylinders because the volume of the second cylinder could occupy some space, and therefore, reduce the effect of the convective heat transfer. By reducing the diameter of the second cylinder by 25% increased the effect of the convection heat transfer and reduced the maximum wall temperature by around 15%. Compared to the channel with no cylinder, the introduction of cylinders into the channel flow was found to increase the average Nusselt number by 55% with the insertion of a stationary rigid cylinder, by 85% with the insertion of an elastic cylinder, by 58% with the insertion of two cylinders of the same diameter, and by approximately 70% with the insertion of two cylinders of different diameters (the second cylinder having the smaller diameter). Furthermore, it was also found that the maximum local Nusselt number could be enhanced by around 200%-400% at the entrance of the fluid channel by using the elastic cylinders compared to the channel without cylinders.

We examine the Rayleigh–Bénard convection as modelled by the Boussinesq equation. Our aim is at deriving bounds for the heat enhancement factor in the vertical direction, the Nusselt number, which reproduce physical scalings. In the first part of the dissertation, we examine the the simpler model when the acceleration of the fluid is neglected (Pr=∞) and prove the non-optimality of the temperature background field method by showing a lower bound for the Nusselt number associated to it. In the second part we consider the full model (Pr<∞) and we prove a new upper bound which improve the existing ones (for large Pr numbers) and catches a transition at Pr~Ra^(1/3).

The present work studies the relationship between target and sidewall surfaces of a multirow, narrow impingement channel at various jet heights with one impingement hole per row. Temperature sensitive paint and constant flux heaters are used to gather heat transfer data on the target and side walls. Jet-to-target distance is set to 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 jet diameters. The channel width is 4 jet diameters and the jet stream wise spacing is 5 jet diameters. All cases were run at Reynolds numbers ranging from 5,000 to 30,000. Pressure data is also gathered and used to calculate the channel mass flux profiles, used to better understand the flow characteristics of the impingement channel. While target plate heat transfer profiles have been thoroughly studied in the literature, side wall data has only recently begun to be studied. The present work shows the significant impact the side walls provide to the overall heat transfer capabilities of the impingement channel. It was shown that the side walls provide a significant amount of heat transfer to the channel. A channel height of three diameters was found to be the optimum height in order to achieve the largest heat transfer rates out of all channels.

Nous nous intéressons au transport turbulent de particules de taille grande devant l’échelle de Kolmogorov. Cette situation se retrouve à la fois dans les écoulements naturels (comme le transport de sédiments) et dans les écoulements industriels (solutés solides dans un mélangeur par exemple). Pour aborder ce problème, nous étudions la dynamique de particules de taille proche de l’échelle intégrale, de densité égale ou légèrement différente de celle du fluide, dans un écoulement turbulent de von Kármán contra-rotatif, à l’aide d’un montage de suivi lagrangien rapide. L’étude de la dynamique rapide des particules montre une diminution forte des fluctuations selon la taille, mais aussi l’apparition d’un phénomène nouveau : à partir d’une certaine taille, les particules n’explorent plus l’écoulement de façon homogène. Cette exploration préférentielle est liée à la structure moyenne de l’écoulement de von Kármán, qui crée une force de piégeage. Cette force devient alors supérieure aux fluctuations des particules quand leur taille dépasse une taille critique. Une étude dans le régime laminaire, où l’écoulement moyen domine largement les fluctuations, a en effet mis en évidence un piégeage fortement accru. Les particules orbitent alors pendant des temps très longs autour des attracteurs stables des particules fluides de l’écoulement laminaire. Même en régime pleinement turbulent, le déplacement des particules entre ces zones s’effectue sur des durées longues, décorrélées des temps de la dynamique turbulente. Nous avons adapté les outils d’analyse pour caractériser cette dynamique et l’avons comparée à celle de particules isodenses dans un écoulement de von Kármán qui possède deux états asymétriques. Nous avons également élaboré un modèle qui reproduit ces caractéristiques dans les cas symétrique et asymétrique. Ces questions sont intimement liées au transfert de masse ou de chaleur entre une particule et l’écoulement. Nous avons donc aussi étudié la fusion de grosses billes de glace en turbulence développée, analysant l’influence de la taille des billes et de la vitesse de glissement sur le transfert thermique, à l’aide d’un montage d’ombroscopie afocale. Nous avons notamment montré que les grosses billes de glace fondent dans un régime ultime de convection forcée lorsqu’elles sont librement advectées par l’écoulement. / We are interested in the turbulent transport of particles whose size is bigger than the Kolmogorov length scale. This issue takes place as much in natural flows (such as sediment transport) as in industrial flows (solid solute in mixer for instance). To tackle this problem, we study the dynamics of particle with size close to the integral length scale, whose density can be neutral or slightly different from the one of the fluid, in a turbulent counter-rotating von Kármán flow, through a fast Lagrangian tracking setup. Studying the fast scale motions, we find out that the fluctuations decrease strongly with particle diameter, but we also discover a new phenomena: particles bigger than a certain size do not sample the flow homogeneously. This preferential sampling is link to the von Kármán mean structure, which applies a trapping force on the particles, overcoming their fluctuations as their size becomes bigger than a critical size. A study in the laminar flow regime, where the mean flow is much greater than the fluctuations, showed an strongly increased trapping effect. The particles indeed orbit for very long times around stable attractors of the fluid particles of the laminar flow. Even in turbulent regime, the motion of the particle between these areas occurs at long times intervals, in a decorrelated way of the turbulent motion. We adapted our analysis tools to characterize this dynamics, comparing it to the one of large neutrally-buoyant particles in a von Kármán flow which presents two asymmetric states. We also designed a model that can reproduce these characteristics in both symmetrical and asymmetrical cases. These issues are tightly linked to mass or heat transfer between a particle and the carrier flow. Therefore, we also studied the melting dynamics of large ice balls in fully developed turbulence, analyzing the impact of particles size and sliding velocity on the turbulent heat transfer, through an afocal shadowgraphy setup. We showed in particular that large freely advected ice balls melt in the ultimate regime of heat transfer.

Industriedampfturbinen weisen zwischen ihren Leitgitterträgern und dem Außengehäuse dampfgefüllte Seitenräume auf, die in ihrer Form und in ihren Abmessungen stark variieren. Der durch die Wirbelstrukturen im Seitenraum induzierte erzwungene konvektive Wärmeübergang bestimmt das thermomechanische Verhalten des Gehäuses maßgeblich. Bislang existiert jedoch noch kein verallgemeinerungsfähiges Wissen zum lokalen Wärmeübergang in Gehäuseseitenräumen. Mittels des neu konzipierten Seitenraumversuchsstandes „SiSTeR“ sind erstmalig systematische experimentelle Untersuchungen zum Wärmeübergang in skalierten, generisch variablen Totraummodellen in Luftströmung durchgeführt worden. Die Bestimmung lokal aufgelöster Wärmeübergangskoeffizienten (WÜK) erfolgt mittels zweier unabhängiger rückwirkungsarmer Messverfahren mit geringem Wärmeeintrag. Für die stationäre inverse Methode wurden Materialtemperaturen in der Totraumaußenwand gemessen und mittels verschiedener thermischer Ersatzmodelle, die sich hinsichtlich ihrer Komplexität, Berechnungsdauer und Genauigkeit unterscheiden, umgewertet. Die Unsicherheit der aus den Temperaturen berechneten WÜK liegt bei allen eingesetzten inversen Verfahren deutlich unter 10 %, mit Ausnahme der äußersten Randbereiche des Seitenraumes. Die WÜK-Verteilung im Totraum kann in guter Näherung mit einer parametrisierten Gauß’schen Glockenkurve approximiert werden. Neben der Reynolds-Zahl in der Hauptströmung stellt die Breite des Einströmspaltes zum Seitenraum einen Haupteinflussparameter auf den Wärmeübergang dar. Es wurde eine Nusselt-Korrelation entwickelt, die alle experimentell ermittelten Werte zufriedenstellend abbildet und dafür geeignet ist, innerhalb ihrer Gültigkeitsgrenzen detaillierte WÜK-Verläufe für beliebige Seitenräume in Turbinen und Strömungsverhältnisse zu berechnen. Begleitend zu den experimentellen Untersuchungen erfolgte die Nachrechnung ausgewählter Versuchskonfigurationen mittels numerischer Strömungssimulation.:1 Einleitung und Motivation 2 Stand des Wissens 2.1 Strömung und Wärmeübergang in Seitenräumen von Dampfturbinen 2.2 Strömung in Kavitäten mit T- und L-förmigem Querschnitt 2.3 Wärmeübergang in Kavitäten mit quadratischem Querschnitt 2.4 Notwendigkeit und Ausgangslage der Untersuchungen 2.5 Überblick über aktuelle Forschungstätigkeiten auf dem Gebiet 3 Zielstellung, Methodik und Lösungsweg 4 Versuchsaufbau und -durchführung 4.1 Seitenraumversuchsstand „SiSTeR“ 4.1.1 Versuchsstandkonzept 4.1.2 Dimensionierung und Skalierung der Modellgeometrie 4.1.3 Experimentelle Implementierung des Versuchsstandes 4.1.4 Versuchsanlage zur geregelten Druckluftbereitstellung für den Versuchsstand 4.2 Instrumentierung 4.2.1 Wärmeübergangsmessung im Seitenraum 4.2.2 Wanddruckmessung im Seitenraum 4.2.3 Strömungsmessung im konzentrischen Ringspalt des Hauptströmungskanals 4.2.4 Betriebsmessstellen an der Versuchsanlage 4.3 Messdatenerfassung und -verarbeitung 4.3.1 Messwerterfassungssystem 4.3.2 Datenverarbeitung und -synchronisierung 4.4 Datenauswertung 4.4.1 Massenstrom aus Blendenberechnung 4.4.2 Bezugstemperatur, Bezugsdruck und charakteristische Strömungsgrößen im Versuchsstand 4.4.3 Thermisches Netzwerkmodell zur Abschätzung lokaler Wärmeübergangskoeffizienten 4.4.4 Rückwärtsrechnung mittels gradientenbasiertem Optimierungsverfahren 4.4.5 Ableitungsfreie Optimierung mittels evolutionärem Algorithmus 4.4.6 Inverse Berechnung mittels Trefftz-Funktionen und Regularisierung 4.4.7 Vergleich der mit den Rechenmodellen ermittelten WÜK-Verläufe 4.5 Versuchsplanung und -durchführung 4.5.1 Versuchsablauf 4.5.2 Versuchsmatrix 4.6 Datenreduktion und -mittelung 5 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 5.1 Betriebscharakteristik der Versuchsanlage 5.2 Kalibrierung der Fünflochsonde an der Freistrahldüse 5.3 Strömungsfeld im konzentrischen Ringspaltkanal 5.4 Druckverteilung an der Außenwandinnenoberfläche 5.5 Thermodynamische Stoffwerte der Wandmaterialien 5.5.1 Dichte 5.5.2 Wärmeleitfähigkeit, Temperaturleitfähigkeit, spezifische Wärmekapazität 5.6 Kalibrierung des Messaufbaus an der Saugrohrstrecke 5.7 Messergebnisse zum lokalen Wärmeübergang in generischen Seitenraumgeometrien 5.7.1 Vergleich der Messmethoden 5.7.2 Reproduzierbarkeit und Streuung der Messwerte 5.7.3 Einfluss der Reynolds-Zahl Re in der Hauptströmung 5.7.4 Einfluss der Einströmbreite s 5.7.5 Einfluss der Breite der Kavität b 5.7.6 Einfluss der Exzentrizität der Kavität e 5.7.7 Einfluss des Drallwinkels α in der Anströmung zum Seitenraum 5.8 Analyse und Abschätzung von Messunsicherheiten 5.8.1 Unsicherheit der gemessenen Absolut- und Differenzdrücke 5.8.2 Unsicherheit der gemessenen Temperaturen 5.8.3 Unsicherheit der berechneten Wärmeübergangskoeffizienten 5.8.4 Unsicherheit der geometrischen Maße von Seitenraum und Strömungskanal 5.8.5 Unsicherheit des Massenstromes an der Blendenmessstrecke 5.8.6 Unsicherheit der Reynolds-Zahl 5.8.7 Unsicherheit der Nusselt-Zahl 5.8.8 Unsicherheit der Strömungswinkel und Geschwindigkeitskomponenten 5.9 Verallgemeinerung der Ergebnisse als Nusselt-Korrelation 6 Numerische Nachrechnung ausgewählter Konfigurationen mittels CFD-Simulation 6.1 CFD-Basismodell 6.1.1 Geometrie 6.1.2 Vernetzung 6.1.3 Randbedingungen 6.1.4 Medium/ Stoffkennwerte 6.1.5 Physikalische Modellierung/ Setup 6.1.6 Lösung/ Konvergenz 6.1.7 Auswertung und Ergebnisse 6.2 Modelldetaillierungsgrad und Abbruchfehler 6.3 Netzunabhängigkeitsstudie 6.4 Einfluss der Randbedingungen und der Modellierung 6.5 Large-Eddy-Simulation 6.6 Ergebnisse der systematischen Nachrechnung 7 Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf reale Turbinenverhältnisse 8 Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerungen 9 Ausblick Literatur / Industrial steam turbines have steam-filled side spaces between their guide vane carriers and the outer casing, which vary greatly in shape and dimensions. The forced convective heat transfer induced by the vortex structures in the side space significantly influences the thermo-mechanical behaviour of the casing. Up to present, however, there is no generalisable knowledge about the local heat transfer in casing side spaces. By means of the newly designed side space test rig 'SiSTeR', systematic experimental investigations of heat transfer in scaled, generically variable side space models have been carried out for the first time using air flow. Local heat transfer coefficients (HTC) were determined by using two independent measuring methods with low heat input. For the steady-state inverse method, material temperatures in the outer wall of the side space were measured and converted by means of different thermal substitute models, which differ in terms of complexity, calculation time and accuracy. The uncertainty of the HTC calculated from the temperatures is clearly below 10 % for all inverse methods used, with the exception of the outermost edge areas of the side space. The HTC distribution in the side space can be approximated with a parameterised Gaussian bell curve. In addition to the Reynolds number in the main flow, the width of the inflow gap to the side space represents a main influence parameter on the heat transfer. A Nusselt correlation was developed that satisfactorily reproduces all experimentally determined values and is suitable for calculating detailed heat transfer curves for any side spaces in turbines and flow conditions within its limits of validity. Accompanying the experimental investigations, selected test configurations were further studied by means of numerical flow simulations.:1 Einleitung und Motivation 2 Stand des Wissens 2.1 Strömung und Wärmeübergang in Seitenräumen von Dampfturbinen 2.2 Strömung in Kavitäten mit T- und L-förmigem Querschnitt 2.3 Wärmeübergang in Kavitäten mit quadratischem Querschnitt 2.4 Notwendigkeit und Ausgangslage der Untersuchungen 2.5 Überblick über aktuelle Forschungstätigkeiten auf dem Gebiet 3 Zielstellung, Methodik und Lösungsweg 4 Versuchsaufbau und -durchführung 4.1 Seitenraumversuchsstand „SiSTeR“ 4.1.1 Versuchsstandkonzept 4.1.2 Dimensionierung und Skalierung der Modellgeometrie 4.1.3 Experimentelle Implementierung des Versuchsstandes 4.1.4 Versuchsanlage zur geregelten Druckluftbereitstellung für den Versuchsstand 4.2 Instrumentierung 4.2.1 Wärmeübergangsmessung im Seitenraum 4.2.2 Wanddruckmessung im Seitenraum 4.2.3 Strömungsmessung im konzentrischen Ringspalt des Hauptströmungskanals 4.2.4 Betriebsmessstellen an der Versuchsanlage 4.3 Messdatenerfassung und -verarbeitung 4.3.1 Messwerterfassungssystem 4.3.2 Datenverarbeitung und -synchronisierung 4.4 Datenauswertung 4.4.1 Massenstrom aus Blendenberechnung 4.4.2 Bezugstemperatur, Bezugsdruck und charakteristische Strömungsgrößen im Versuchsstand 4.4.3 Thermisches Netzwerkmodell zur Abschätzung lokaler Wärmeübergangskoeffizienten 4.4.4 Rückwärtsrechnung mittels gradientenbasiertem Optimierungsverfahren 4.4.5 Ableitungsfreie Optimierung mittels evolutionärem Algorithmus 4.4.6 Inverse Berechnung mittels Trefftz-Funktionen und Regularisierung 4.4.7 Vergleich der mit den Rechenmodellen ermittelten WÜK-Verläufe 4.5 Versuchsplanung und -durchführung 4.5.1 Versuchsablauf 4.5.2 Versuchsmatrix 4.6 Datenreduktion und -mittelung 5 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 5.1 Betriebscharakteristik der Versuchsanlage 5.2 Kalibrierung der Fünflochsonde an der Freistrahldüse 5.3 Strömungsfeld im konzentrischen Ringspaltkanal 5.4 Druckverteilung an der Außenwandinnenoberfläche 5.5 Thermodynamische Stoffwerte der Wandmaterialien 5.5.1 Dichte 5.5.2 Wärmeleitfähigkeit, Temperaturleitfähigkeit, spezifische Wärmekapazität 5.6 Kalibrierung des Messaufbaus an der Saugrohrstrecke 5.7 Messergebnisse zum lokalen Wärmeübergang in generischen Seitenraumgeometrien 5.7.1 Vergleich der Messmethoden 5.7.2 Reproduzierbarkeit und Streuung der Messwerte 5.7.3 Einfluss der Reynolds-Zahl Re in der Hauptströmung 5.7.4 Einfluss der Einströmbreite s 5.7.5 Einfluss der Breite der Kavität b 5.7.6 Einfluss der Exzentrizität der Kavität e 5.7.7 Einfluss des Drallwinkels α in der Anströmung zum Seitenraum 5.8 Analyse und Abschätzung von Messunsicherheiten 5.8.1 Unsicherheit der gemessenen Absolut- und Differenzdrücke 5.8.2 Unsicherheit der gemessenen Temperaturen 5.8.3 Unsicherheit der berechneten Wärmeübergangskoeffizienten 5.8.4 Unsicherheit der geometrischen Maße von Seitenraum und Strömungskanal 5.8.5 Unsicherheit des Massenstromes an der Blendenmessstrecke 5.8.6 Unsicherheit der Reynolds-Zahl 5.8.7 Unsicherheit der Nusselt-Zahl 5.8.8 Unsicherheit der Strömungswinkel und Geschwindigkeitskomponenten 5.9 Verallgemeinerung der Ergebnisse als Nusselt-Korrelation 6 Numerische Nachrechnung ausgewählter Konfigurationen mittels CFD-Simulation 6.1 CFD-Basismodell 6.1.1 Geometrie 6.1.2 Vernetzung 6.1.3 Randbedingungen 6.1.4 Medium/ Stoffkennwerte 6.1.5 Physikalische Modellierung/ Setup 6.1.6 Lösung/ Konvergenz 6.1.7 Auswertung und Ergebnisse 6.2 Modelldetaillierungsgrad und Abbruchfehler 6.3 Netzunabhängigkeitsstudie 6.4 Einfluss der Randbedingungen und der Modellierung 6.5 Large-Eddy-Simulation 6.6 Ergebnisse der systematischen Nachrechnung 7 Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf reale Turbinenverhältnisse 8 Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerungen 9 Ausblick Literatur

In the residential and commercial buildings, most of the energy is used to provide the thermal comfort environment to the occupants. The recent research towards Green Buildings is focusing on reduction of energy consumption by air-conditioners and fans used for producing the thermal comfort environment. The thermal comfort is defined as the condition of mind which expresses human satisfaction with the thermal environment. The human body is continuously producing metabolic heat and it should be maintained within the narrow range of core temperature. The heat generated inside the body should be lost to the environment to maintain the thermal equilibrium with each other. The heat loss from the body is taking place in different modes such as conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation through the skin and respiration. These heat losses are influenced by the environmental factors (air temperature, air velocity, relative humidity and mean radiant temperature), physiological factors (activity level, posture and sweat rate) and clothing factors (thermal insulation value, evaporative resistance and microenvironment volume). When the body is in thermally equilibrium with its surrounding environment, the heat production should be equal to heat loss to maintain the thermal comfort. The level of thermal comfort can be measured by the different indices which combine many parameters. Of these, the Fanger’s PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) – PPD (Percentage of People Dissatisfied) index was universally suggested by ASHRAE and ISO. The PMV – PPD index was derived based on the experiment conducted on acclimated European and American subjects. Many researchers have criticized that the PMV – PPD index is not valid for tropical regions and some researchers have well agreed with this index for the same region. The validation of PMV – PPD index for thermal comfort Indians has not yet been examined. The validation of PMV – PPD index can be done by the human heat balance experiment and the individual heat losses have to be calculated from the measured parameters. In the human heat balance, the convective heat transfer plays the major role when the air movement exists around the human body. The convective heat loss is dependent on the convective heat transfer coefficient which is the function of the driving force of the convection. Using Computational Fluid Dynamics techniques, an attempt has been made in this work to determine the convective heat transfer coefficient of the human body at standing posture in natural convection. The CFD technique has been used to analyze the heat and fluid flow around the human body as follows: The anthropometric digital human manikin was modeled in GAMBIT with a test room. This model was meshed by tetrahedral elements and exported to FLUENT software to perform the analysis. The simulation was done at different ambient temperatures (16 oC to 32 oC with increment of 2 oC). The Boussinesq approximation was used to simulate the natural convection and the Surface to Surface model was used to simulate the radiation. The surrounding wall temperature was assigned equal to the ambient temperature. The sum of convective and radiative heat losses calculated based on the ASHRAE model was set as heat flux from the manikin’s surface. From the simulation, the local skin temperatures have been taken, and the temperature and velocity distributions analyzed. The result shows that the skin temperature is increasing with an increase in ambient temperature and the thickness of the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic boundary layers is increasing with height of the manikin. From the Nusselt number analogy, the convective heat transfer coefficients of the individual manikin’s segments have been calculated and the relation with respect to the temperature differences has been derived by the regression analysis. The relation obtained for the convective heat transfer coefficient has been validated with previous experimental results cited in literature for the same conditions. The result shows that the present relation agrees well with the previous experimental relations. The characteristics of the human thermal plume have been studied and the velocity of this plume is found to increase with the ambient temperature. Using the Grashof number, the flow around the human manikin has been examined and it is observed to be laminar up to abdomen level and turbulent from shoulder level. In between these two levels, the flow is found to be in transition. The validation of PMV model for tropical countries, especially for Indians, was done by heat balance experiment on Indian subjects. The experiment was conducted on forty male subjects at different ambient temperatures in a closed room in which low air movement exists. The local skin temperature, relative humidity, air velocity and globe temperature were measured. The sensation vote was received from all the subjects at all the conditions. The convective heat loss was calculated from its coefficient obtained from the present computational simulation. The radiation heat loss was calculated for two cases: In case one, the mean radiant temperature was taken equal to the ambient temperature and in case two, the mean radiant temperature was calculated from the globe temperature. The other heat losses were calculated from the basic formulae and the relations given by ASHRAE based on Fanger’s assumption. From these calculations, the validity of the Fanger’s assumption was examined. The collected sensation votes and the calculated PMV were compared to validate the PMV – PPD index for Indians. The experimental results show that there was much variation in the calculated comfort level using the measured parameters and the Fanger’s assumption. For the case of mean radiant temperature equal to the ambient temperature for indoor condition, the comfort level was varying more than the actual. In addition, the calculated comfort level from the globe temperature agreed well with the comfort level from the collected sensation votes. So it was concluded that the ASHRAE model is valid for Indians if the radiation was measured exactly. Using the ASHRAE model, the required wall emissivity of the surrounding wall at different ambient temperatures was determined from the CFD simulation. In the ASHRAE model, the surrounding wall emissivity plays the major role in the radiative heat loss from the human body. Hence in recent years, research on low emissive wall paints is focused. The computational study was done to determine the required wall emissivity to obtain the thermal comfort of the occupant at low energy consumption. The simulation was done with the different ambient temperatures (16 oC to 40 oC with increment of 4 oC) with the different surrounding wall emissivity (0.0 to 1.0 with increment of 0.2). From this simulation, the change in mean skin temperature with respect to wall emissivity was obtained for all ambient temperature conditions. The required mean skin temperature for a particular activity level was compared with the simulation results and from that, the required wall emissivity at the different ambient conditions was determined. If the surrounding walls are having the required emissivity, it leads to decrease in heat/cold strain on the human body, and the thermal comfort can be obtained with low energy consumption.(please note that title in the CD is given as COMPUTATION OF REQUIRED WALL EMISSIVITY FOR LOW ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN BUILDINGS USING ASHRAE MODEL VALIDATED FOR INDIAN THERMAL COMFORT)

Eco-friendly non-CFC refrigerants were introduced in the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration industry during the last few years to reduce damage to the stratospheric ozone layer. The HFC refrigerant R-134a, which has zero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), is being used extensively as a replacement for R-12 and also in some centrifugal chillers as a replacement for R-11. However, the disadvantage of R-134a is its comparatively high global warming potential (GWP). Owing to energy crisis and also to reduce the indirect warming impact resulting from electrical energy usage, the new refrigeration systems should be operated at the lowest possible condensing temperatures. In view of this, several active and passive techniques for augmentation of condensation heat transfer and reduction of condensation temperature are gaining increasing attention. Passive augmentation methods are more popular than active ones. To this end, micro-finned tubes of various geometrical shapes are being explored for compact heat exchangers in the refrigeration industry as the best choice. Towards understanding the enhancement in condensation heat transfer coefficients in micro-finned tubes, a test facility has been fabricated to measure the condensing coefficients for R-134a refrigerant. Condensation experiments have been conducted on single plain and finned tubes of outer diameter 19 mm with a refrigerant saturation temperature of 400C and tube wall temperatures 350C, 320C, 300C and 280C respectively. Water is used as the cooling medium inside the tubes with the flow rate varying from 180 lph to 600 lph. The condensing coefficient typically ranged from 0.9 – 1.4 kW/(m2 K) for plain tubes and from 4.2 to 5.8 kW/(m2 K) for the finned tubes. The results of the plain v tube are found to compare favourably with the Nusselt’s theory, leading to a validation of the experimental procedure. Upon comparing the results of finned and plain tubes, it is found that provision of fins result in an enhancement factor of 3.6 to 4.6 in the condensation heat transfer coefficients. This level of enhancement is larger than that resulting from the enhanced surface area of the finned tube surface, suggesting that, apart from the extended area, the surface tension forces play an important role in the augmentation process by driving the condensate from the fin crests to the valleys in between the fins. The measured augmentation factors have also been cross-checked using the Wilson plot method. Detailed error analysis has been performed to quantify the uncertainty in the condensation heat transfer coefficient. The performance of a bank of tubes has been determined based on the measurements carried out on practical condensers of two large chillers with refrigerating capacities of 500 TR and 550 TR. On comparing the finned tube bank results and the single finned tube results, it is found that the average condensation heat transfer coefficient in a bank of tubes having N rows varies as N ¯1/6. The deterioration is in agreement with the relation proposed by Kern.

The problem of laminar and turbulent conjugate mixed convection flow and heat transfer in shallow enclosures with a series of block-like heat generating components is studied numerically for a Reynolds number range of zero (pure natural convection) to typically 106, Grashof number range of zero (pure forced convection) to 1015 and various block-to-fluid thermal conductivity ratios, with air as the working medium. The shallow enclosure has modules consisting of heat generating elements, air admission and exhaust slots. Two problems are considered. In the first problem, the enclosure has free boundaries between the modules and in the second problem, there are partitioning walls between the different modules. The flow and temperature distributions are taken to be two-dimensional. Regions with the same velocity and temperature distributions can be identified assuming repeated placement of the blocks and fluid entry and exit openings at regular distances, neglecting end wall effects. One half of such rectangular region is chosen as the computational domain taking into account the symmetry about the vertical centreline. On the basis of the assumption that mixed convection flow is a superposition of forced convection flow with finite pressure drop and a natural convection flow with negligible pressure drop, the individual flow components are delineated. The Reynolds number is based on forced convection velocity, which can be determined in practice from the fan characteristics. This is believed to be more meaningful unlike the frequently used total velocity based Reynolds number, which does not vanish even in pure natural convection and which makes the fan selection difficult. Present analysis uses three models of turbulence, namely, standard k-ε (referred to as Model-1), low Reynolds number k-ε (referred to as Model-2) and an SGS kinetic energy based one equation model (referred to as Model-3). Results are obtained for aiding and opposing mixed convection, considering also the pure natural and pure forced convection limiting cases. The results show that higher Reynolds numbers tend to create a recirculation region of increasing strength at the core region and that the ranges of Reynolds number beyond which the effect of buoyancy becomes insignificant are identified. For instance, in laminar aiding mixed convection, the buoyancy effects become insignificant beyond a Reynolds number of 500. Results are presented for a number of quantities of interest such as the flow and temperature distributions, local and average Nusselt numbers and the maximum dimensionless temperature in the block. Correlations are constructed from the computed results for the maximum dimensionless temperature, pressure drop across the enclosure and the Nusselt numbers.