INTRODUÇÃO: O Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (TOC) é um transtorno heterogêneo de etiologia desconhecida. Um mesmo paciente pode ter diversos sintomas obsessivo-compulsivos (SOC) e diferentes pacientes podem ter SOC completamente diferentes entre si. Esta heterogeneidade reduz as chances de identificação de genes específicos relacionados ao transtorno. Diversos estudos utilizaram abordagens categoriais ou dimensionais com o objetivo de caracterizar subgrupos mais homogêneos de pacientes. O estudo de pares de irmãos pode contribuir com a caracterização fenotípica de componentes familiais do TOC. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a correlação e concordância de algumas características clínicas do TOC em pares de irmãos concordantes para o diagnóstico de TOC: idade de início dos SOC, expressão de transtornos de tiques (TTs) e expressão de dimensões de SOC. MÉTODO: Quarenta irmãos com TOC (18 famílias) foram avaliados por psiquiatras e psicólogos. Famílias com dois ou mais irmãos com diagnóstico de TOC foram incluídas. Estas famílias foram indicadas por clínicas especializadas, pertencentes ao Consórcio Brasileiro de Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (http://www.protoc.com.br/portal/ctoc/), onde ao menos um dos irmãos recebia tratamento. A escala Yale Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale Checklist foi utilizada para avaliar presença e gravidade dos SOC. O diagnóstico de TOC foi feito de acordo com os critérios do DSM-IV. A idade de início dos SOC foi definida como a idade em que o paciente ou membro familiar recorda que ocorreu o primeiro SOC. O teste qui-quadrado foi utilizado para avaliar concordância de TTs em pares de irmãos com TOC, considerando-se como base para o valor esperado a prevalência de TTs relatada na literatura (cerca de 30%). Foram feitas correlações intraclasse para os escores de cada um dos quatro fatores de SOC estudados e para as idades de início dos SOC. Quatro fatores de SOC foram analisados: obsessões de agressão, sexuais, religiosas, somáticas e compulsões de checagem (Fator 1); obsessões e compulsões de simetria, repetição, contagem e ordem e arranjo (Fator 2); obsessões de contaminação e compulsões de limpeza (Fator 3); obsessões e compulsões de colecionamento (Fator 4). RESULTADOS: Dos 40 irmãos com TOC avaliados, 52% deles eram do sexo masculino. A idade média dos pacientes quando realizadas as entrevistas foi de 29,65 ± 11,49 anos. A idade média do início dos SOC foi de 11,83 ± 7,56 anos. Foi observada correlação significativa das idades de início dos SOC (p=0,005) nos pares de irmãos com TOC. Quatorze pacientes (35%) tinham diagnóstico de TTs. Não foi encontrada concordância da presença de TTs nos pares de irmãos com TOC. Foi encontrada correlação positiva significativa do Fator 3 (obsessões de contaminação e compulsões de limpeza) (ICC=0,74; p=0,002) quando os pares de irmãos eram concordantes para o sexo masculino. Quando os pares de irmãos eram concordantes para o sexo feminino, foi encontrada correlação positiva significativa do Fator 4 (obsessões e compulsões de colecionamento) (ICC=0,76; p=0,01). Não foram encontradas quaisquer outras correlações significativas dos fatores de SOC. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados sugerem que fatores familiais e ligados ao sexo contribuam para expressão de componentes do fenótipo do TOC, como idade de início e dimensões específicas de SOC. / BACKGROUND: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heterogeneous disorder of unknown etiology. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) vary from one patient to another and even from time to time in the same patient. The heterogeneity of OCD reduces the chance of finding specific genes related to the disorder. Categorical and dimensional approaches have been used in many studies in attempts to identify more phenotypic homogeneous subgroups. Phenotypic studies of affected sib-pairs may help to characterize familial components of the OCD phenotype. The aim of this study is to determine whether sibling pairs affected with OCD are similar in age at onset of OCS, presence of tic disorders (TDs), and obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions. METHODS: Forty OCD siblings (18 families) were evaluated by expert psychiatrists or psychologists. Families with two or more siblings affected with OCD were recruited from several specialized OCD clinics where at least one sibling was been treated. All of the clinics involved belonged to the Brazilian OCD Research Consortium (http://www.protoc.com.br/portal/ctoc/). The Yale Brown Obsessive- Compulsive Scale Checklist was used to assess OCS and the severity of OCD. The OCD diagnoses were made according to the DSM-IV. Age at onset was defined as the age that the patient, or a family member, remembered as the beginning of the OCS. The chi-square test was used to assess concordance of TD presence within sibling pairs based on the TD frequency reported in the literature (30%).Intraclass correlations were determined for the scores of all four evaluated factors and for the ages at onset of OCS. Four specific OCS factors were analyzed in the present study: aggressive, sexual, religious and somatic obsessions together with checking compulsions (Factor 1); symmetry, repeating, counting and ordering /arranging symptoms (Factor 2); contamination obsessions and cleaning compulsions (Factor 3); and hoarding symptoms (Factor 4). RESULTS: Among the siblings evaluated 52% were male, and the mean age at the time of interview was 29.65 ± 11.49 years. The mean age at onset of OCS was 11.83 ± 7.56 years. Age at onset of OCS correlated positively and significantly between the two members of each sibling pair (p=0.005). Fourteen patients (35%) were diagnosed with TDs. There was no concordance of the TD presence within the sibling pairs. When siblings were male, there was a significant sibling correlation in the contamination obsessions/cleaning compulsions dimension (ICC=0.74; p=0.002). Similarly, when both siblings were female, they were comparable in the hoarding obsessions/compulsions dimension (ICC=0.76; p=0.01). No other significant correlations were found. CONCLUSION: Familial factors seem to contribute to specific OCD phenotypic components such as age at onset of OCS and specific dimensions. The obvious influence of gender is as yet unexplained.

INTRODUÇÃO: O Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (TOC) é um transtorno heterogêneo de etiologia desconhecida. Um mesmo paciente pode ter diversos sintomas obsessivo-compulsivos (SOC) e diferentes pacientes podem ter SOC completamente diferentes entre si. Esta heterogeneidade reduz as chances de identificação de genes específicos relacionados ao transtorno. Diversos estudos utilizaram abordagens categoriais ou dimensionais com o objetivo de caracterizar subgrupos mais homogêneos de pacientes. O estudo de pares de irmãos pode contribuir com a caracterização fenotípica de componentes familiais do TOC. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a correlação e concordância de algumas características clínicas do TOC em pares de irmãos concordantes para o diagnóstico de TOC: idade de início dos SOC, expressão de transtornos de tiques (TTs) e expressão de dimensões de SOC. MÉTODO: Quarenta irmãos com TOC (18 famílias) foram avaliados por psiquiatras e psicólogos. Famílias com dois ou mais irmãos com diagnóstico de TOC foram incluídas. Estas famílias foram indicadas por clínicas especializadas, pertencentes ao Consórcio Brasileiro de Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (http://www.protoc.com.br/portal/ctoc/), onde ao menos um dos irmãos recebia tratamento. A escala Yale Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale Checklist foi utilizada para avaliar presença e gravidade dos SOC. O diagnóstico de TOC foi feito de acordo com os critérios do DSM-IV. A idade de início dos SOC foi definida como a idade em que o paciente ou membro familiar recorda que ocorreu o primeiro SOC. O teste qui-quadrado foi utilizado para avaliar concordância de TTs em pares de irmãos com TOC, considerando-se como base para o valor esperado a prevalência de TTs relatada na literatura (cerca de 30%). Foram feitas correlações intraclasse para os escores de cada um dos quatro fatores de SOC estudados e para as idades de início dos SOC. Quatro fatores de SOC foram analisados: obsessões de agressão, sexuais, religiosas, somáticas e compulsões de checagem (Fator 1); obsessões e compulsões de simetria, repetição, contagem e ordem e arranjo (Fator 2); obsessões de contaminação e compulsões de limpeza (Fator 3); obsessões e compulsões de colecionamento (Fator 4). RESULTADOS: Dos 40 irmãos com TOC avaliados, 52% deles eram do sexo masculino. A idade média dos pacientes quando realizadas as entrevistas foi de 29,65 ± 11,49 anos. A idade média do início dos SOC foi de 11,83 ± 7,56 anos. Foi observada correlação significativa das idades de início dos SOC (p=0,005) nos pares de irmãos com TOC. Quatorze pacientes (35%) tinham diagnóstico de TTs. Não foi encontrada concordância da presença de TTs nos pares de irmãos com TOC. Foi encontrada correlação positiva significativa do Fator 3 (obsessões de contaminação e compulsões de limpeza) (ICC=0,74; p=0,002) quando os pares de irmãos eram concordantes para o sexo masculino. Quando os pares de irmãos eram concordantes para o sexo feminino, foi encontrada correlação positiva significativa do Fator 4 (obsessões e compulsões de colecionamento) (ICC=0,76; p=0,01). Não foram encontradas quaisquer outras correlações significativas dos fatores de SOC. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados sugerem que fatores familiais e ligados ao sexo contribuam para expressão de componentes do fenótipo do TOC, como idade de início e dimensões específicas de SOC. / BACKGROUND: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heterogeneous disorder of unknown etiology. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) vary from one patient to another and even from time to time in the same patient. The heterogeneity of OCD reduces the chance of finding specific genes related to the disorder. Categorical and dimensional approaches have been used in many studies in attempts to identify more phenotypic homogeneous subgroups. Phenotypic studies of affected sib-pairs may help to characterize familial components of the OCD phenotype. The aim of this study is to determine whether sibling pairs affected with OCD are similar in age at onset of OCS, presence of tic disorders (TDs), and obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions. METHODS: Forty OCD siblings (18 families) were evaluated by expert psychiatrists or psychologists. Families with two or more siblings affected with OCD were recruited from several specialized OCD clinics where at least one sibling was been treated. All of the clinics involved belonged to the Brazilian OCD Research Consortium (http://www.protoc.com.br/portal/ctoc/). The Yale Brown Obsessive- Compulsive Scale Checklist was used to assess OCS and the severity of OCD. The OCD diagnoses were made according to the DSM-IV. Age at onset was defined as the age that the patient, or a family member, remembered as the beginning of the OCS. The chi-square test was used to assess concordance of TD presence within sibling pairs based on the TD frequency reported in the literature (30%).Intraclass correlations were determined for the scores of all four evaluated factors and for the ages at onset of OCS. Four specific OCS factors were analyzed in the present study: aggressive, sexual, religious and somatic obsessions together with checking compulsions (Factor 1); symmetry, repeating, counting and ordering /arranging symptoms (Factor 2); contamination obsessions and cleaning compulsions (Factor 3); and hoarding symptoms (Factor 4). RESULTS: Among the siblings evaluated 52% were male, and the mean age at the time of interview was 29.65 ± 11.49 years. The mean age at onset of OCS was 11.83 ± 7.56 years. Age at onset of OCS correlated positively and significantly between the two members of each sibling pair (p=0.005). Fourteen patients (35%) were diagnosed with TDs. There was no concordance of the TD presence within the sibling pairs. When siblings were male, there was a significant sibling correlation in the contamination obsessions/cleaning compulsions dimension (ICC=0.74; p=0.002). Similarly, when both siblings were female, they were comparable in the hoarding obsessions/compulsions dimension (ICC=0.76; p=0.01). No other significant correlations were found. CONCLUSION: Familial factors seem to contribute to specific OCD phenotypic components such as age at onset of OCS and specific dimensions. The obvious influence of gender is as yet unexplained.

<p>Despite the prominence of cognitive theories of anxiety disorders, which posit that thoughts can affect the expression of psychopathology, empirical investigation of the origins of such thoughts is scant. In the study of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), a number of cognitive factors, deemed obsessive beliefs, have been identified as correlates of the disorder. Although both parenting behaviors and obsessive beliefs have demonstrated associations with obsessive-compulsive symptoms, research exploring the relations between all three of these constructs has been heretofore limited. Moreover, given the moral content of some obsessions and compulsions (e.g. praying, harm prevention techniques), it is possible that specific moral socialization techniques serve to promote obsessive beliefs. This study investigated parenting, obsessive beliefs, moral socialization and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in a large non-clinical sample (N=288). Thirty-four students who were measured as relatively high or low on obsessive beliefs subsequently completed an additional procedure in which they were interviewed about moral socialization. Results provided support for a model in which obsessive beliefs served as a mediator of the relations between parenting behaviors and symptom levels. Adding self-conscious emotions to the model as a covariate significantly improved overall fit statistics. With respect to moral socialization, few differences emerged in the moral socialization histories of individuals relatively high or low on obsessive beliefs. However, those in the high obsessive beliefs group were more likely to report relationship-centered discipline (i.e. the parent using damage to the parent-child relationship as a vehicle for punishment) than those in the low obsessive beliefs group.</p> / Dissertation

No description available.

Doctor of Clinical Psychology / Obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms occur in a variety of clinical conditions, but the underlying pathogenesis of these symptoms remains elusive. Few neuropsychological investigations have compared idiopathic Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) with patient groups where OC symptoms are acquired. The present study investigated the neuropsychological correlates of OC symptoms in OCD and frontotemporal dementia (FTD), a neurodegenerative illness in which OC symptoms are often acquired. Neuroimaging in OCD has consistently implicated the frontal-striatal-thalamic circuit, particularly the orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia. These areas overlap considerably with the sites of cerebral pathology found in FTD. OCD has been associated with a number of neuropsychological deficits, with most consistent findings pointing towards impaired executive function (EF), and less commonly reported deficits in visual memory and visuospatial ability. The neuropsychological hallmark of FTD is deficits in EF. However in both OCD and FTD, the relationship between cognitive deficits and OC symptoms remains unclear. Further, the extent to which OC symptoms are comparable between the groups is ambiguous. Part I of the present study compared 19 OCD subjects to 20 age, education and IQ-matched healthy controls on a battery of neuropsychological tests of all major cognitive domains with emphasis on EF. A measure of Theory of Mind (ToM) thought to be sensitive to orbitofrontal function was also administered. OCD subjects performed worse than controls on a measure of visual memory, visuospatial reasoning and on only one measure of EF. OCD symptom subtypes, as measured by the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (OCI), were not correlated with any cognitive deficits. No group differences in ToM were found. It is suggested that prior research has overestimated the severity and significance of EF deficits in OCD. Part II of the study compared 9 FTD participants with 10 matched healthy controls on the same neuropsychological test battery and OC symptom measures. In addition, a measure of compulsive behaviours used in neurological populations was administered to carers. While the incidence of OC symptoms was comparable to reports in previous studies (78%), the OCI was not sensitive in the detection of OC symptoms in FTD. The similarities and differences in OC symptoms between the two patient groups are discussed.

Doctor of Clinical Psychology / Obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms occur in a variety of clinical conditions, but the underlying pathogenesis of these symptoms remains elusive. Few neuropsychological investigations have compared idiopathic Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) with patient groups where OC symptoms are acquired. The present study investigated the neuropsychological correlates of OC symptoms in OCD and frontotemporal dementia (FTD), a neurodegenerative illness in which OC symptoms are often acquired. Neuroimaging in OCD has consistently implicated the frontal-striatal-thalamic circuit, particularly the orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia. These areas overlap considerably with the sites of cerebral pathology found in FTD. OCD has been associated with a number of neuropsychological deficits, with most consistent findings pointing towards impaired executive function (EF), and less commonly reported deficits in visual memory and visuospatial ability. The neuropsychological hallmark of FTD is deficits in EF. However in both OCD and FTD, the relationship between cognitive deficits and OC symptoms remains unclear. Further, the extent to which OC symptoms are comparable between the groups is ambiguous. Part I of the present study compared 19 OCD subjects to 20 age, education and IQ-matched healthy controls on a battery of neuropsychological tests of all major cognitive domains with emphasis on EF. A measure of Theory of Mind (ToM) thought to be sensitive to orbitofrontal function was also administered. OCD subjects performed worse than controls on a measure of visual memory, visuospatial reasoning and on only one measure of EF. OCD symptom subtypes, as measured by the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (OCI), were not correlated with any cognitive deficits. No group differences in ToM were found. It is suggested that prior research has overestimated the severity and significance of EF deficits in OCD. Part II of the study compared 9 FTD participants with 10 matched healthy controls on the same neuropsychological test battery and OC symptom measures. In addition, a measure of compulsive behaviours used in neurological populations was administered to carers. While the incidence of OC symptoms was comparable to reports in previous studies (78%), the OCI was not sensitive in the detection of OC symptoms in FTD. The similarities and differences in OC symptoms between the two patient groups are discussed.

Au cours de la dernière décennie, Vallerand et ses collaborateurs ont largement contribué aux écrits sur la passion pour les activités, notamment les activités sportives. Selon eux, il serait possible de développer une passion de type harmonieux ou une passion de type obsessif. L'internalisation autonome de l'activité favoriserait le développement d'une passion harmonieuse tandis que l'internalisation contrôlée de l'activité paverait la voie au développement d'une passion obsessive. La majorité des écrits sur la passion semblent démontrer que la passion harmonieuse serait associée à des caractéristiques positives de la santé psychologique, alors que la passion obsessive ne serait pas associée à ces mêmes caractéristiques. Parfois, cette dernière serait même associée à des caractéristiques négatives de la santé psychologique. Dans un autre ordre d'idées, les études portant sur l'épuisement professionnel dans le sport se sont également multipliées. Raedeke propose un modèle tridimensionnel du concept. Ainsi, l'épuisement professionnel chez les athlètes se caractériserait par un épuisement physique et émotionnel, une dévalorisation du sport et une réduction du sentiment d'accomplissement. Bien que ces sujets aient gagné en popularité, de nombreuses questions restent en suspens. La présente étude tente donc de répondre aux deux questions suivantes. Premièrement, est-il possible, pour un étudiant-athlète universitaire, de changer de type de passion au cours d'une saison de sport? Deuxièmement, les étudiants-athlètes passionnés obsessifs ressentent-ils davantage de symptômes d'épuisement professionnel plus la saison progresse? Afin de répondre à ces questions, 72 étudiants-athlètes pratiquant le volleyball, le basketball ou l'athlétisme ont rempli un questionnaire comprenant 11 questions sociodémographiques ainsi que les versions françaises de l'échelle de passion ( passion scale ) et de l'Athletes Burnout Questionnaire . La présente étude se déroule sur l'ensemble de la saison automnale et hivernale de compétitions interuniversitaires et compte trois moments de mesure, soit en début, en milieu et en fin de saison. Les résultats démontrent que 28 participants sur 72 ont changé de type de passion au cours de la saison. Certains d'entre eux (11/28) ont même changé de type de passion à deux reprises. Il est aussi possible d'observer que le niveau d'épuisement professionnel pour l'ensemble des participants augmente de façon significative au cours de la saison. Les passionnés obsessifs démontrent également significativement plus de signes d'épuisement professionnel que les passionnés harmonieux. Cependant, aucun effet d'interaction du temps et du type de passion n'a été observé. Cette recherche apporte un éclairage supplémentaire à l'étude de la passion pour les activités ainsi qu'à l'étude de l'épuisement professionnel chez les athlètes. Des questions supplémentaires et des commentaires, notamment sur le processus de changement de type de passion, sur le principal instrument utilisé dans l'étude de la passion ainsi que sur l'épuisement professionnel chez les athlètes sont discutés.

Thesis (PhD (Psychiatry))-- Stellenbosch University, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), a debilitating psychiatric disorder, affects 2-3% of the general population, and represents a global health problem. Evidence from family studies suggests that genetic factors play a role in mediating disease development. However, the pattern of inheritance is not consistent with monogenic disorders, but is “genetically complex”. Case-control association analysis, which facilitates dissection of the genetic aetiology of complex disorders, has yielded many inconsistent results in OCD studies, making identification of predisposing alleles difficult. These discrepant findings can largely be attributed to inappropriate statistical methodology and the lack of OCD phenotypic resolution. Although classified as a single clinical entity according to structured algorithms, OCD probably represents a final common outcome of multiple underlying aetiologies. Thus, numerous clinical subtypes of the disorder have been proposed; these “intermediate” phenotypes may be more closely related to a particular genetic substrate than the higher order construct of OCD. Furthermore, although genes encoding serotonergic (5-HT) and dopaminergic components are most commonly investigated, it is likely that the behavioural manifestations of OCD are mediated by a broader network of interconnected neurotransmitter and signalling pathways. Consequently, the aim of the present study was two-fold: to address the factors that may have confounded previous genetic case-control association studies and to investigate the genetic aetiology of OCD phenotypes while accounting for these factors. Case and control individuals were drawn from the reportedly genetically homogeneous Afrikaner population. However, as no empirical evidence existed to support the absence of genetic substructure, which would confound genetic association studies, a Bayesian modelbased clustering algorithm (Structure), that groups individuals on the basis of observed genotype data, was employed to assess population stratification in both case and control Afrikaner subjects. OCD patients were clinically stratified by gender, symptom severity, age at onset, the presence of selected co-morbid disorders and the presence of selected symptom dimensions, to facilitate the identification of susceptibility genes more closely related with these subtypes. Candidate genes included those coding for components of the 5-HT (5-HT receptors 1Dβ, 2A, 2C and 6), dopaminergic (dopamine receptors 1, 2, 3 and 4, dopamine transporter and catechol-O-methyltransferase [COMT]), glutamatergic (glutamate receptor subunit 2B [GRIN2B]) and neurodevelopmental pathways (brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF] and homeobox 8 [HoxB8]), as well as previously uninvestigated genes (angiotensinconverting enzyme I, inositol-trisphosphate, phospholipase-C-gamma 1 and estrogen receptor alpha). The relationship between variants in these genes and OCD (or OCD subtypes) was investigated in a single locus and a haplotype context, while meta-analyses using published population-based case-control association data were also conducted. Significant associations noted between distinct COMT variants and OCD implicated COMT in the development of a genetically discrete, gender-dependant, early-onset, tic-related phenotype in males. Furthermore, investigations of variations in BDNF and GRIN2B point towards a genetically distinct, neurodevelopmental subtype of the disorder, mediated, in males at least, primarily by dysfunctions in BDNF. The striking gender dimorphism noted in these associations indicates the possibility of an epigenetic hormonal influence. Moreover, the significant association of polymorphisms within GRIN2B, in both a single locus and haplotype context, suggests the involvement of this gene in mediating a phenotypic subtype characterised by an early-onset, more severe form of the disorder. The present investigation forms part of ongoing research to elucidate genetic components involved in the aetiopathology of OCD and OCD-related subtypes. Such studies may pave the way towards more efficacious pharmacotherapeutic strategies, which will ease the suffering of individuals who are afflicted with this incapacitating condition. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Obsessiewe-kompulsiewe steuring (OKS) is 'n aftakelende psigiatriese siektetoestand wat 2- 3% van die algemene bevolking affekteer en 'n globale gesondheidsprobleem verteenwoordig. Familiestudies dui daarop dat genetiese faktore 'n rol in die ontwikkeling van hierdie siekte speel. Die patroon van oorerwing is egter nie verenigbaar met dié van monogeniese siektes nie, maar is geneties "kompleks". Geval-kontrole assosiasie-ontleding, wat die disseksie van die genetiese etiologie van komplekse siektes fasiliteer, het teenstrydige resultate in OKS gelewer en dit bemoeilik die identifikasie van predisponerende allele. Die teenstrydige bevindings kan grootliks aan ontoepaslike statistiese metodiek en die gebrek aan fenotipiese differensiasie in OKS toegeskryf word. Alhoewel dit volgens gestruktureer algoritmes as 'n enkele kliniese entiteit geklassifiseer word, verteenwoordig OKS waarskynlik die eindresultaat van veelvoudige onderliggende oorsake. Baie kliniese subtipes van die toestand is al voorgestel en dié "intermediêre' fenotipes mag nader verwant aan 'n spesifieke genetiese substraat as die hoër orde konsep van OKS wees. Verder, alhoewel die gene wat die serotonergiese (5-HT) en dopaminergiese komponente kodeer meestalondersoek word, is dit waarskynlik dat die gedragsmanifestasies van OKS deur 'n breër netwerk van intergekonnekteerde neuro-oordragstof- en seinoordragpaaie meegebring word Gevolglik was die doel van die huidige studie tweevoudig: om faktore wat vorige genetiese geval-kontrole assossiasie-studies verwar het aan te spreek en om die genetiese etiologie van OKS-fenotipes te ondersoek met in ag neming van hierdie faktore. Geval- en kontrole-individue is gekies uit die Afrikaner-bevolking wat as geneties homogeen beskryf kan word. Daar was geen empiriese bewyse vir die afwesigheid van 'n genetiese substruktuur (wat genetiese assossiasie-studies sou verwar),nie. Daarom is 'n Bayesiese model-gebaseerde groeperings-algoritme (Structure), wat individue op grond van waargenome genotipiese data groepeer, gebruik om die populasie-stratifikasie is beide gevalen kontrole- Afrikaner-individue te bepaal. OKS-pasiënte is klinies gestratifiseer volgens geslag, ernstigheid van simptome, ouderdom by aanvang van simptome, die teenwoordigheid van geselekteerde komorbiede siektetoestande en die teenwoordigheid van geselekteerde simptoomdimensies of -groepe, om die identifikasie van moontlike vatbaarheidsgene wat nader verwant is aan die verskillende subtipes te fasiliteer/vergemaklik. Kandidaatgene het ingesluit: dié wat kodeer vir komponente van die 5-HT-(5-HT reseptore IDB, 2A, 2C and 6), dopaminergiese (dopamienreseptore 1, 2, 3 and 4, dopamien-transporter and katesjol-O-metieltransferase [COMTJ), glutamatergiese (glutamaat-reseptor subeenheid 2B [GRIN2B]) and neuro-ontwikkelingspaaie (brein-gederiveerde neurotrofiese faktor [BDNF] en homeobox 8 [HoxB8]), sowel as die gene wat nie voorheen ondersoek is nie (angiotensien-omsettingsensiem I, inositol-trisfosfaat, fosfolipase-C-gamma 1 en estrogeen-reseptor alpha). Die verhouding tussen variante in hierdie gene en OKS (of OKS-subtipes) is ondersoek in 'n enkel-lokus en haplotipe konteks, en meta-analises, wat gepubliseerde bevolkings-gebaseerde geval-kontrole ontledingsdata gebruik het, is ook gedoen. Beduidende assosiasies gevind tussen spesifieke COMT-variante en OKS in mans, het daarop gedui dat COMT in die ontwikkeling van geneties-diskrete, vroeë-aanvang, senutrekking ("tics") -verwante fenotipe in mans betrokke is. Verder het ondersoeke van variasies in BDNF en GRIN2B daarop gedui dat 'n geneties-afsonderlike, neuro-ontwikkelings-subtipe van.OKS wat, ten minste in mans, primêr deur wanfunksie van BDNF meegebring word. Die opvallende geslags verskil wat in hierdie assosiasies gesien word, dui op die moontlikheid van 'n epigenetiese hormonale invloed. Bowendien, die beduidende assosiasie van polimorfismes in GRIN2B in beide die enkel-lokus en haplotipe konteks, dui op die betrokkenheid van hierdie geen in die meebring van 'n fenotipiese subtipe wat deur 'n vroeë aanvang, en meer ernstige vorm van die siekte gekenmerk word. Die huidige ondersoek vorm deel van voortgesette navorsmg om die genetiese komponente wat betrokke is by die etiopatologie van OKS en OKS-subtipes, bloot te lê. Sodanige studies kan die weg baan na meer doeltreffende farmakoterapeutiese strategieë wat die lyding van indi vidue wat deur hierdie aftakelende toestand geraak word, kan verlig.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is classified as an anxiety disorder characterized by distressing persistent unwanted ideas or impulses (obsessions) and urges and/or compulsion to do something to relieve the associated anxiety caused by the obsession. The thematic content of the obsessions are highly variable, ranging from symmetry, contamination to aggressive concerns. Compulsions tend to be linked to the obsessions, but can also be idiosyncratic to the intrusive thought. According to the cognitive model, Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is maintained by various belief factors such as an inflated sense of responsibility, overestimation of threat and the over-control of thoughts. Despite much support for this hypothesis, there is a lack of specificity. This series of studies sought to determine the relationship between a number of cognitive beliefs and appraisal processes and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. This thesis presents the results of three studies. The first study was designed to investigate the hypothesis that certain beliefs are more prevalent in OCD, compared with other anxiety disorders. The second study expands on earlier findings by examining whether the six metacognitive beliefs proposed by the Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group, (OCCWG; 1997, 2001, & 2003) correlate with specific symptom-based OCD subtypes. The final study addresses some of the methodological weaknesses inherent in retrospective self-report measures by replicating the study using experimental techniques. Most importantly, this research was conducted from within the theoretical framework of Rachman (1993) and Salkovskis (1989) models which emphasise the misinterpretation of significance of the intrusive thoughts. The first study explored the relationship between thought-action fusion (TAF) and inflated responsibility beliefs across individuals diagnosed with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), an anxiety disorder other than OCD (anxious controls; AC), and a non-anxious control group (NAC). It was hypothesized that the OCD group would evidence significantly higher inflated responsibility and TAF scores, compared to the AC and NAC groups. In this study, non-clinical and clinical participants were recruited for research. The non-clinical group was comprised of undergraduate students (n = 22: mean age = 26.8; SD = 9.2). The clinical groups included 20 participants with OCD as their primary diagnosis (mean age = 32.1; SD = 11.9) and 21 individuals diagnosed with another anxiety disorder (mean age = 32.2; SD = 10.9). To measure inflated responsibility beliefs and thought action fusion, self-report questionnaires were administered to the participants. The results of this study demonstrated that inflated responsibility beliefs, while present in other anxiety disorders, were significantly higher in participants with OCD, even after controlling for depressed mood and TAF levels. No group differences emerged between the OCD and anxious groups on measures of TAF. Thus, it can be tentatively concluded that inflated responsibility beliefs may have a more robust relationship with OCD than TAF beliefs, which appear to act as a general vulnerability factor occurring along a continuum of anxiety disorders. The second study examined the associations between the six OCD-related beliefs: control of thoughts, importance of thoughts, responsibility, intolerance of uncertainty, overestimation of threat and perfectionism and five empirically derived OCD subgroups. Clinical participants with a primary diagnosis with OCD (n = 67: mean age = 38.0; SD = 11.7) were recruited over a period of two years from the Anxiety Disorders Unit. Participant responses were cluster analysed to form five stable groups: aggressive obsessions-checking compulsions (n = 22: mean age = 26.8; SD = 9.2); contamination obsessions-cleaning compulsions (n = 22: mean age = 26.8; SD = 9.2); symmetry concerns-ordering/arranging compulsions (n = 22: mean age = 26.8; SD = 9.2); hoarding obsessions-hoarding compulsions (n = 22: mean age = 26.8; SD = 9.2); and miscellaneous obsessions -miscellaneous compulsions (n = 22: mean age = 26.8; SD = 9.2). The second found that intolerance of uncertainty was significantly related to the contamination subgroup. While responsibility and threat estimation beliefs were higher in the aggressive-checking subgroup, these differences did not reach statistical significance. No other significant results were found, however, there was a non-significant trend for perfectionism beliefs to be higher in symmetry-ordering and hoarding subgroup. Following the results of this study, questions remained about whether the lack of significant findings reflected the generality of these beliefs or were due to methodological differences. This led to the development of the final study presented in this thesis. The purpose of the final study was to investigate whether the second study was limited by the method of assessment (e.g. self-report questionnaires). This study was unique, as it was the first of its kind to experimentally manipulate all six beliefs in empirically derived OCD subtypes. Twenty participants (mean age = 45.0; SD = 11.0) were chosen from the second study to form the following priori groups: contamination (n = 4: mean age = 44.5; SD = 9.5); aggressive (n = 6: mean age = 46.5; SD = 7.2); hoarding (n = 4: mean age = 47.2; SD = 6.9); and symmetry (n = 6: mean age = 41.8; SD = 17.4). Six behavioural experiments designed to reflect one of the six OCCWG beliefs were specifically developed and administered to the groups. Baseline scores were obtained using self-report questionnaires. The study found strong support for the use of experimental paradigms over self-report measures, as several significant interactions between cognitive beliefs and OCD symptom-based subtypes were found. Specifically, the hoarding subgroup evidenced significantly higher overall thought action fusion scores compared to those in the contamination group. The symmetry subgroup exhibited significantly higher anxiety than the aggressive group during the perfectionism task and demonstrated significantly higher scores on several items measuring perfectionism compared to the contamination group. Finally, over-estimation of threat beliefs was significantly higher in the contamination thoughts. No statistically significant group differences were found for controllability of thoughts, responsibility and intolerance of uncertainty. In conclusion, these studies collectively showed that in some cases of OCD certain beliefs appear highly applicable, whereas in others they are not. This finding may explain why some OCD patients have poor treatment outcomes as the beliefs and appraisals were highly variable across groups. These findings are of both theoretical and clinical significance because they add to the growing understanding that OCD may consist of distinct clusters of symptoms with different underlying motivations and beliefs. This finding is of clinical significance because treatment guidelines for OCD can become more specific, factoring into the therapy situation these underlying beliefs and appraisal processes. Lastly, the findings regarding inflated responsibility deserve special mention, given the significance of this construct in contemporary cognitive models. The results of the present studies were mixed with regard to responsibility as only the first study found a significant result. It appears that, like the other belief domains proposed by the OCCWG, responsibility may not be specific to all types of OCD and current cognitive models may benefit was shifting the emphasis to other belief domains.

This diploma thesis analyzes the phenomenon known as stalking. The psychological part is deals with the studies of two target groups of stalking - stalkers and their victims. I am pointing out especially the typology that can predict potential violence, and those that show means that limit, respectively stop stalker's conduct, such as effect of legal sanction or comply with medical care. I also examine, in detail, some legislations of Common law countries and the legislation of the Czech Republic. I focuse on civil, administrative and criminal means of legal protection against stalking.