Proteins are synthesised as linear polymeric chains. The subtle energetic interplay of interatomic interactions results in chain folding, through which proteins may acquire defined structures. This spatial organisation is encoded by the protein sequence itself; the so-called thermodynamic hypothesis formulated by Anfinsen in 1961. A defined structure is often considered a pre-requisite to protein function, but widespread existence of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) has prompted a re- evaluation of the ways biological function may be encoded into polypeptide chains. Furthermore, proteins often exist as part of multi-component entities, where regulation of assembly is integral to their properties. The interplay between disorder, oligomerisation and function is the focus of this thesis. Some IDPs fold conditionally upon interacting with a partner protein; a process known as coupled folding and binding. What are the biophysical advantages and consequences of disorder in the context of these interactions? A common feature of IDPs is their sequence composition bias, with charged residues being often over-represented. It is therefore tempting to speculate that electrostatic interactions may play a major role in coupled folding and binding reactions. Surprisingly, the opposite was found to be true. Charge-charge interactions only contributed about an order of magnitude to the association rate constants of two contrasting model systems. The lack of pre-formed binding interfaces-a consequence of disorder-might preclude electrostatic acceleration from complementary patches. By looking at the role of the sequence, many studies have taken a protein-centric approach to understanding disorder. Yet there is paucity of data about the effect of extrinsic factors on interactions involving disordered partners. Investigating the role of co-solutes, it was discovered that the kinetic and thermodynamic profiles of coupled folding and binding reactions were sensitive to ion-types. This effect followed the Hofmeister series, and occurred at physiological concentrations of salt. The sensitivity of coupled folding and binding reactions-a consequence of the lack of stability of IDPs-might be advantageous. Given the role of ions in biology, this 'biophysical sensing' could be a mechanism of physiological relevance, allowing modulation of protein-protein interactions involving disordered partners in response to changes in their environments. In cells, signalling networks are often multi-layered, and involve competing protein-protein interactions. The interplay between the biophysical characteristics of the components, and the behaviour of the network were investigated in a model tripartite system composed of folded and disordered proteins. The BCL-2 family regulates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis through control of mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilisation; a result of BAK and BAX oligomerisation. Through a shared homology motif (termed BH3), the subtle balance of their interactions determines cellular fate at the molecular level. Characterisation of the model under simple biochemical conditions revealed large differences in affinities among binary interactions; the consequence of the lifetime of the complexes, not their speed of association. A membrane-like environment, re-created using detergents, allows the oligomerisation of BAK and BAX in vitro. Furthermore, investigation of the tripartite system under detergent conditions showed that regulation of the network was the result of competing hetero- and homo-oligomerisation events. Relationships to their biophysical properties were gained by probing their energy landscapes using protein folding techniques. The connection between the biophysical properties of the components of the network and their interactions provides a molecular explanation for the regulation of apoptosis. This thesis offers insights into the ways structured assemblies and environmentally responsive disorder elements may encode functions into proteins.

Dans l’étude des GPCRs, il a longtemps été considéré que ceux-ci étaient présents à la membrane sous forme de monomères et que chaque monomère pouvait être activé par un ligand et transmettre le signal grâce à une protéine G. Certains résultats comme des courbes de compétition ou d’activation à deux phases étaient difficilement explicables avec ce modèle 1 ligand, 1 récepteur, 1 protéine G.<p>Ces dernières années, il a été montré via différentes techniques que les GPCRs étaient présents à la membrane non pas sous forme de monomères mais plutôt de dimères, de rangées de dimères voire de multimères. Cette disposition permet plus facilement d’expliquer certains résultats mais complique considérablement le modèle. Un nombre important de nouvelles questions sont posées quant au fonctionnement d’une telle formation de récepteurs. Quelle est l’unité fonctionnelle ?Y a-t-il une communication entre les récepteurs qui forment ces oligomères ?Est-ce qu’un ligand peut activer plusieurs récepteurs, plusieurs protéines G ?Que se passe-t-il quand l’oligomérisation se fait entre des récepteurs différents ?Est-ce qu’un ligand d’un récepteur peut en activer un autre ?Est-ce que la voie d’activation change en fonction du ligand ou du nombre de molécules liées sur un homomère ou un hétéromère? Toutes ces questions sont à prendre en considération lors de l’étude pharmacologique de n’importe quelle drogue car si le récepteur cible hétéromérise avec un autre, la drogue étudiée ne pourrait plus avoir le même effet. Prendre en considération tous ces paramètres peut compliquer considérablement l’étude d’une drogue mais elle pourrait en prévoir précisément certains effets secondaires.<p>Dans cette thèse nous étudions la question de la communication par la coopérativité négative (effet négatif sur l’affinité d’un site de liaison lors de la liaison du ligand sur un l’autre site du dimère). Nous mettons en évidence un lien entre l’activité constitutive d’un récepteur et le niveau de coopérativité négative grâce à des expériences d’accélération de dissociation de ligand traceur. La coopérativité négative observée sur les mutants du récepteur à la TSH les plus constitutifs est quasiment nulle. Nous montrons que cette perte de coopérativité négative provoque un changement de stœchiométrie ligand/récepteur et qu’au lieu de lier un seul ligand par dimère, les mutants les plus constitutifs sont capables d’en lier deux.<p>Malgré nos efforts pour identifier le ou les domaines de communication entre les récepteurs nous n’avons pu les déterminer. C’est pourquoi nous laissons cette question ouverte mais proposons sur base de nos observations et de la littérature, un modèle où la communication entre récepteurs pourrait être expliquée par la liaison de la protéine G au dimère de récepteur.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences agronomiques et ingénierie biologique / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The technical feasibility of gasoline and diesel range hydrocarbons production through oligomerisation of olefins, starting from biomass with the intermediary steps of gasfication, water-gas shift reaction and syngas-to-olefins synthesis was investigated, through mathematical modelling and simulation on Matlab. The model for the gasifier was based on minimisation of Gibbs free energy and its results showed that higher carbon efficiencies could be achieved at lower pressures and steam inlet, and more inlet energy, by pre-heating the gasifying agents. The water-gas shift reactor was used to increase the ratio of hydrogen to carbon monoxide from the gasifier, before entering the syngas-to-olefins process. A 1-D model was employed to determine the concentration, temperature, and pressure profiles in the reactor. High inlet pressure and temperature were shown to be beneficial, by requiring smaller reactors for the desired ratios to be reached. Experimental data from scientific literature was used for empirical modelling of the Fischer-Tropsch reactor. Partial pressure of CO and H2 amounting to 1 bar, high temperature and H2/CO showed better production of the low olefins. A reaction mechanism and accordingly, rate equations were developed and employed in a plug-flow type reactor model, calculating the concentration profile of the olefins up to C20. High pressures were favourable for the production of heavier fractions, while elevated temperatures showed to cause more cracking of heavy hydrocarbons and consequently, less conversion. Based on the results of individual reactors, an integrated process flow diagram was suggested and optimised for maximum production of low olefins to the oligomerisation reactor (C2-4). The optimisation showed overall carbon efficiency of the process to be around 20%. The reason for this was associated with the choice of catalyst in the FTO process, due to its high selectivity to carbon dioxide. / Den tekniska genomförbarheten av bensin- och dieselproduktion genom oligomerisering av olefiner, från biomassa via förgasning, vatten-gasförskiftsreaktion och syngas-till-olefiner syntes undersöktes genom matematisk modellering och simulering på Matlab. Förgasningsmodellen baserades sig på Gibbs energi minimisering. Ju mindre förgasningstryck desto högre uppnås koleffektivitet. Vatten-gasskift reaktorn användas för att anpassa väte/kolmonoxid förhållande från förgasningsreaktorn till syngas till olefiner rektorn. En 1-D modell utvecklades och beräknade reaktorns koncentrationer, temperatur och tryckprofiler. Högre inlopps tryck och temperaturer leder till mindre reaktorer.   Experimentella data från vetenskaplig litteratur användes för att modellara Fischer-Tropsch reaktorn (syngas till olefiner). Partialt tryck av CO och H2 lika med 1 bar, hög temperatur och H2 / CO visade högre produktion av lätta olefiner. En reaktionsmekanism och följaktligen hastighetsekvationer utvecklades för oligomerisering och användades i en pluggflödesreaktor. Modellen beräknade koncentrationer profiler av olefiiner upp till C20.Högre tryck producerar tyngre fraktioner (diesel) medan högra temperaturer främjar krakning. Baserat på resultaten från enskilda reaktorer föreslogs ett integrerat processflödesdiagram och optimerades för maximal produktion av låga olefiner till oligomeriseringsreaktorn (C2-4). Optimeringen visade att den totala koleffektiviteten i processen var cirka 20%. Anledningen till detta var förknippat med valet av katalysator i FTO-processen på grund av dess höga selektivitet för koldioxid.

Ce travail décrit la synthèse et l’étude conformationnelle de nouveaux oligomères mixtes. Dans le premier chapitre, en exploitant des travaux antérieurs concernant la synthèse des N-aminodipeptides, nous avons obtenu des oligomères mixtes, alternant des liens amides et N-aminoamides nommés [[allpha]/[alpha]-N-amino]mères. L’oligomérisation des N-aminopeptides en phase liquide est réalisable grâce à un couplage au fluorure d’acide à partir d’une unité de base possédant les protections Boc (extrémité N-terminale), Bn (extrémité C-terminale) et phtaloyle (azote latéral). Le deuxième chapitre présente les résultats obtenus par différentes méthodes spectroscopiques (RMN, IR et DC) et modélisation moléculaire sur les différents oligomères synthétisés dans le chapitre 1. Ces travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence un repliement répétitif original par une liaison hydrogène de type C8 impliquant un groupement carbonyle du phtalimide et un proton amidique / This work describes the synthesis and the conformational study of new mixed oligomers. In the first chapter, using previous work on the synthesis of N-aminodipeptids, we were obtained mixed oligomers alternating amid and N-aminoamid bond named [[alpha]/[alpha]-N-amino]mers. The oligomerization of N-aminopeptids in liquid phase was achieved through an acid fluorid coupling from a building block with the protections Boc (N-terminus), Bn (C-terminus) and phtaloyl (N-side). The second chapter presents the results obtained by different conformational spectroscopic methods (NMR, IR and DC) and molecular modeling on the various oligomers synthesized in Chapter 1. This work has allowed to highlight a original repetitive folding by a C8 hydrogen bond involving the carbonyl group of phthalimid and a amid proton

The Dps (DNA-Binding Protein from Starved Cells) proteins are a class of stress-specific proteins with a major role in protecting DNA during the stationary phase of bacterial growth, through direct physical binding as well as ferroxidation. These proteins are characteristically dodecameric in nature. Mycobacterium smegmatis, which is the model organism used in this study has two Dps homologues- MsDps1 and MsDps2. MsDps1, that has previously been studied, is exceptional in having trimeric as well as dodecameric states in vitro. This work focuses on the functional domains of MsDps1, with respect to its oligomerisation and DNA binding property, the identification of a new Dps homologue MsDps2, the in vitro characterization of MsDps2 and elucidation of a possible function of the protein in the physiology of Mycobacterium smegmatis. The Thesis is organized as shown below: Chapter 1: The literature on the bacterial stationary phase physiology and the role of Dps has been reviewed in this chapter. It gives a brief introduction of the background of the present study including the stationary phase response of bacteria and the significance of studying bacteria under stress as apart from ideal conditions of growth, which has been the conventional approach until recently. The advantages of using Mycobacterium smegmatis as a model system, and its starvation-induced stationary phase are also discussed. An introduction to the Dps proteins as a family of proteins branched off from ferritins and nucleoid proteins is explained. A brief summary of the ferritin and nucleoid proteins is given. Similarities connecting Dps to both these protein families is described. The review of earlier work done in our laboratory on the mycobacterial MsDps1 protein is also presented. Chapter 2: involves the study of the solution properties of the protein including its ability to oligomerize in vitro. The MsDps1 protein exists in two forms, a trimer and a dodecamer. The trimer form is a unique feature of the M.smegmatis homologue. Dps proteins from other sources are characteristically dodecameric. Earlier studies have shown that the trimeric form of the protein can perform ferroxidation while the dodecamer can bind to DNA. The dodecamer can also perform ferroxidation and accumulate the oxidized iron in its negatively charged core. In this chapter, we show that the trimeric form is extremely stable, under various conditions of pHs. The protein, when over expressed in M.smegmatis, also shows the presence of the trimer, thus ruling out the effect of heterologous expression of the protein in E.coli. We further report here, the ideal conditions for dodecamerisation of the protein from trimer to dodecamer, which binds to DNA. The dodecamer once formed is also highly stable and does not revert back to the trimeric form. The structural stability of the dodecamer is expected, as it is the fully functional form of the protein that physically protects the DNA from stress. However, the high stability of the trimeric form and its precise conversion into a stable dodecamer is intriguing. It is interesting to study the functional significance in vivo of the oligomerisation process in MsDps1. In addition, we looked at the effect of over expression of the protein on the overall phenotype of Mycobacterium smegmatis, as evidenced by the colony morphology and find no visible alteration, when compared with the wild type. Chapter 3: deals with a more detailed structural analysis of the MsDps1 protein. The role of N and C termini of the protein in maintaining a stable oligomeric structure is studied by making an N-terminal deletion mutant of the protein which is found to be unable to form a dodecamer in solution. On the other hand, MsDps1 with a 16 amino acid C-terminal deletion, MsDpsΔC16, is able to form stable oligomeric structures, when the N-terminal is intact. A previous deletion reported from our laboratory with 26 amino acids deleted from the C-terminal tail, called MsDpsΔC26 showed inability to form stable oligomeric structures in vitro. Putting together all the above results, a model for the interaction of the N and C-terminal tails of the protein in maintaining a stable dodecamer is presented. A demarcation of the C-terminal tail of MsDps1 into regions determining the oligomeric stability and DNA binding was also inferred. The MsDpsΔC16 protein, does not bind to DNA although it forms a stable dodecamer. A further deletion of 10 amino acids, as seen in a previously made construct, MsDpsΔC26 disrupts both the DNA binding as well as the oligomeric stability of the protein. Chapter 4: describes the discovery of a new homolog of the Dps protein in M.smegmatis. It was named as MsDps2. Bio-informatics analysis carried out on the complete genome data of Mycobacterium smegmatis yielded a second homologue of Dps in addition to the one already present and characterized. Interestingly, out of the 300 homogues of Dps found in bacteria, only 195 are present as single copies in a bacterium. The rest exist as more than one homologue in the same bacterial genome. The basic characterization of this new Dps homologue and its confirmation as a Dps family member is the focus of this chapter. Chapter 5: deals with the possible functions of the new protein MsDps2. Electron micrography shows that the purified protein forms stable nucleoprotein-like complexes. Over expression of the MsDps2 proteins presents no difference in the colony morphology when compared with the wild-type. Western analysis shows that the MsDps2 protein is not expressed under normal conditions tested for growth. MsDps1, on the other hand shows expression under conditions of starvation and osmotic stress, as has been established previously in the laboratory. Hence, it can be inferred that the new protein MsDps2 does not perform the same function as MsDps1. However, the in vivo function of this protein remains an important question to be addressed. The appearance of in vitro nucleoid structures involving this protein under the electron microscope, suggests a possible role for this protein in the formation and stabilization of the mycobacterial nucleoid. Indeed extensive evidence for the same exists for the E.coli protein. Chapter 6: describes the results obtained from the sequence comparison of MsDps2 with other Dps proteins listed in the TIGR database. ClustalW sequence analysis, followed by the construction of a phylogenetic tree using the MEGA software, suggests that the mycobacterial Dps proteins fall into two separate groups, represented by the MsDps1 and MsDps2 homologues from Mycobacterium smegmatis. Chapter 7 Summary and Conclusions: A summary of the work presented in the thesis is given followed by the appendix sections. Appendix 1 includes list and maps of plasmids used. Appendix 2 details the theoretical DNA and protein sequences of the recombinant clones generated in the study and theoretical physical and chemical properties of the proteins studied, as calculated with the Expasy Protparam software. Appendix 3 includes raw data obtained from the bio-informatic analysis of MsDps2, obtained using ClustalW analysis.

Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Untersuchung der kationisch initiierten Oligomerisation von N-Vinylformamid mit Iod, Brom, Trifluormethansulfonsäure und Trifluormethansulfonsäure-trimethylsilylester. Quantenchemische Berechnungen zur Konformation und zur Elektronendichteverteilung von N-Vinylformamid, sowie zu seiner Reaktion mit Elektrophilen werden vorgestellt. Die Struktur der erhaltenen Oligomere wird mittels 1H- und 13C-NMR-Spektroskopie, MALDI-TOF-MS, GPC, IR-Spektroskopie, Thermogravimetrie und quantitativer Elementaranalyse untersucht. Die Abhängigkeit von Ausbeute, mittleren Polymerisationsgrad und Kopfgruppenfunktionalität der erhaltenen Oligo(N-vinylformamide) vom Initiator, sowie von der Polarität des Lösemittels, dem eingesetzten Monomer/Initiator-Verhältnis und der Reaktionstemperatur wird vorgestellt. Im Vergleich zum N-Vinylformamid werden N-Vinylacetamid, N-Methyl-N-vinylformamid, N-Methyl-N-vinylacetamid und N-Vinylpyrrolidon auf ihre Fähigkeit untersucht, mit Initiatoren der kationischen Polymerisation Oligomere zu bilden. Mit N-Deutero-N-vinylformamid als Monomer und der 2H-NMR-Analyse der erhaltenen Oligomere wird der Einfluß der NH-Eliminierung während der Oligomerisation von N-Vinylformamid untersucht. Ausgehend von den experimentellen Ergebnissen wird ein für die Vinylpolymerisation neuer Mechanismus für die Oligomerisation von N-Vinylformamid vorgeschlagen und diskutiert. / The topic of the dissertation is the survey of the cationically initiated oligomerization of N-vinylformamide with iodine, bromine, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid trimethylsilylester as initiators. Quantum chemical calculations on the conformation and the electron density of N-vinylformamide, as well as on its reaction with electrophiles are presented. The structure of the obtained oligomers is investigated with 1H- and 13C NMR spectroscopy, MALDI-TOF-MS, GPC, IR spectroscopy, thermal decomposition, and quantitative combustion analysis. The influence of the polarity of the solvent, of the initiator, of the reaction temperature, and of the monomer/initiator ratio on yield, degree of polymerization, head group functionality, and chain structures of the obtained oligo(N-vinylformamide) is investigated. In comparison with N-vinylformamide, the ability of N-vinylacetamide, N-methyl-N-vinylformamide, N-methyl-N-vinylacetamide, and N-vinylpyrrolidone in undergoing a cationically induced polymerization to oligomeric products is investigated. The influence of the NH-elimination on the oligomerization process is investigated with N-deutero-N-vinylformamide as monomer and the 2H NMR analysis of the obtained oligomers. From the results, a new mechanism for the oligomerization of N-vinylformamide is proposed and discussed.

Les alpha oléfines linéaires courtes sont des molécules de base en pétrochimie donc le marché est en constante augmentation notamment pour les oléfines légères (butène-1, hexène-1, octène-1). Ces oléfines, utilisées massivement dans l’industrie des plastiques, sont produites par la réaction catalytique d’oligomerisation de l’éthylène. IFPEN a contribué à développer plusieurs procédés homogènes d’oligomérisation de l’éthylène (AlphaButol, AlphaHexol, AlphaSelect) à base des complexes de titane, chrome ou zirconium. A travers une collaboration avec l’Université d’Amsterdam de nouvelles stratégies de développement de ligands ont été entreprises afin de rendre les catalyseurs à base de nickel sélectifs pour cette transformation. Ainsi, une approche supramoléculaire basée sur des interactions par liaison hydrogène, jusqu’alors décrite pour les métaux nobles, a été développée et appliquée aux complexes de nickel. Des complexes organométalliques originaux ont pu être générés et les interactions supramoléculaires ont été caractérisées par diffraction aux rayons X notamment. Ces complexes se présentent sous forme zwitterionique et sont formés par la combinaison de deux ligands simples donneurs et/ou accepteurs d’hydrogène. Ces complexes se sont avérés très actifs vis-à-vis de l’éthylène et ne nécessite pas l’ajout d’activateur du fait de la présence d’une liaison nickel-carbone réactive. Ils ont permis d’accéder à des sélectivités très importantes en butène-1. Appuyé par des expériences in situ et l’évaluation en catalyse de plusieurs complexes aux propriétés électroniques et stériques variées, cette approche a permis d’identifier l’espèce active et de mesurer l’impact de plusieurs descripteurs permettant de moduler la sélectivité et l’activité de la réaction catalytique en profondeur. / The demand for short linear alpha olefins is constantly increasing and motivates the development of robust and selective catalysts. In this thesis, several libraries of phosphorus ligands with the capacity to form dissymmetric or supramolecular assemblies were synthesized. The variability observed within the aminophosphine libraries, clearly reflected by the various tautomeric equilibrium of the ligand, was also observed in the nickel complexes as a single ligand could generate several complexes with different structures. Sulphonyliminobisphosphine were then introduced as a new class of ligands. These precursors rearrange in the presence of nickel to generate diphosphinamine nickel complexes. Activated by MAO, these complexes are active in the reaction of ethylene oligomerisation and produce short chain olefins. A new approach that forms stable supramolecular nickel complexes was developed by combining two phosphorus ligands with Ni(0). These complexes stabilised by hydrogen bonding are directly active in the reaction of ethylene oligomerisation with some catalysts leading to high selectivity to 1-butene (up to 84%). To understand the origin of that selectivity, the scope of complexes was extended to ligands with different steric and electronic properties. Their evaluation in the reaction of ethylene oligomerisation evidenced a relation between the catalyst structure and the selectivity of the reaction. Mechanistic studies, under an ethylene atmosphere, reveals that cationic complexes rearrange to neutral complexes, which are likely, the active species.

Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Untersuchung der kationisch initiierten Oligomerisation von N-Vinylformamid mit Iod, Brom, Trifluormethansulfonsäure und Trifluormethansulfonsäure-trimethylsilylester. Quantenchemische Berechnungen zur Konformation und zur Elektronendichteverteilung von N-Vinylformamid, sowie zu seiner Reaktion mit Elektrophilen werden vorgestellt. Die Struktur der erhaltenen Oligomere wird mittels 1H- und 13C-NMR-Spektroskopie, MALDI-TOF-MS, GPC, IR-Spektroskopie, Thermogravimetrie und quantitativer Elementaranalyse untersucht. Die Abhängigkeit von Ausbeute, mittleren Polymerisationsgrad und Kopfgruppenfunktionalität der erhaltenen Oligo(N-vinylformamide) vom Initiator, sowie von der Polarität des Lösemittels, dem eingesetzten Monomer/Initiator-Verhältnis und der Reaktionstemperatur wird vorgestellt. Im Vergleich zum N-Vinylformamid werden N-Vinylacetamid, N-Methyl-N-vinylformamid, N-Methyl-N-vinylacetamid und N-Vinylpyrrolidon auf ihre Fähigkeit untersucht, mit Initiatoren der kationischen Polymerisation Oligomere zu bilden. Mit N-Deutero-N-vinylformamid als Monomer und der 2H-NMR-Analyse der erhaltenen Oligomere wird der Einfluß der NH-Eliminierung während der Oligomerisation von N-Vinylformamid untersucht. Ausgehend von den experimentellen Ergebnissen wird ein für die Vinylpolymerisation neuer Mechanismus für die Oligomerisation von N-Vinylformamid vorgeschlagen und diskutiert. / The topic of the dissertation is the survey of the cationically initiated oligomerization of N-vinylformamide with iodine, bromine, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid trimethylsilylester as initiators. Quantum chemical calculations on the conformation and the electron density of N-vinylformamide, as well as on its reaction with electrophiles are presented. The structure of the obtained oligomers is investigated with 1H- and 13C NMR spectroscopy, MALDI-TOF-MS, GPC, IR spectroscopy, thermal decomposition, and quantitative combustion analysis. The influence of the polarity of the solvent, of the initiator, of the reaction temperature, and of the monomer/initiator ratio on yield, degree of polymerization, head group functionality, and chain structures of the obtained oligo(N-vinylformamide) is investigated. In comparison with N-vinylformamide, the ability of N-vinylacetamide, N-methyl-N-vinylformamide, N-methyl-N-vinylacetamide, and N-vinylpyrrolidone in undergoing a cationically induced polymerization to oligomeric products is investigated. The influence of the NH-elimination on the oligomerization process is investigated with N-deutero-N-vinylformamide as monomer and the 2H NMR analysis of the obtained oligomers. From the results, a new mechanism for the oligomerization of N-vinylformamide is proposed and discussed.

[ES] El aumento constante en la demanda de combustibles sumado a la crisis energética actual derivada de una escasez global de combustibles, y agravada por la suma de consecuencias de la pandemia COVID-19, la guerra de Ucrania y la crisis del gas, ha provocado una creciente búsqueda de nuevas alternativas para la obtención de combustibles. En este contexto, las refinerías se enfrentan al reto tanto de satisfacer la demanda de combustibles líquidos, como de cumplir con los requerimientos de calidad y medioambientales, cada vez más estrictos. El proceso de oligomerización de olefinas ligeras representa una ruta catalítica de gran interés para la obtención de productos de composición y calidad adecuadas para su posterior incorporación a los "pools" de gasolina, combustible de aviación y de diésel. Además de su versatilidad hacia la producción de un producto u otro en función de las condiciones de reacción y del tipo de catalizador empleado, permite el aprovechamiento de corrientes excedentes de refinería o procedentes de fuentes renovables ricas en olefinas. En este proceso los catalizadores ácidos, y entre ellos las zeolitas, han demostrado ser los más adecuados para la obtención de destilados medios de alta calidad. Sin embargo, los catalizadores basados en zeolitas presentan problemas difusionales que provocan su rápida desactivación. Por todo ello, la presente tesis se ha centrado en la mejora del proceso de oligomerización de penteno mediante el empleo de zeolitas nanocristalinas como catalizadores, con el fin de minimizar estas restricciones difusionales y de aumentar su tiempo de vida útil. Para la primera parte de la tesis se ha seleccionado la zeolita de poro grande beta (BEA) como catalizador de oligomerización y se ha preparado una serie de betas nanocristalinas con diferentes relaciones Si/Al en medio fluoruro y en medio OH. Se ha estudiado el efecto de la reducción del su tamaño de cristal y de la densidad de centros ácidos Brönsted en su comportamiento catalítico, y se ha caracterizado los catalizadores desactivados para estudiar el tipo de especies carbonosas formadas, responsables de la pérdida de actividad, y su posible regeneración. La segunda parte de la tesis se centra en el estudio del comportamiento catalítico de la zeolita multiporo ferrierita (FER). Así pues, se ha sintetizado una serie de zeolitas ferrieritas nanocristalinas con distintos tamaños de cristal y propiedades texturales y ácidas y se han evaluado como catalizadores en la oligomerización de penteno. La mejor de las nanoferrieritas, según los resultados obtenidos en oligomerización, se ha estudiado como catalizador en la isomerización de butenos a isobuteno, proceso que usa ferrierita a escala comercial. Su comportamiento catalítico se ha comparado con el de una ferrierita comercial, una ferrierita jerarquizada, una ITQ-6 deslaminada y una nanoferrierita parcialmente calcinada. Con esta última se ha estudiado el papel del coque en la mejora de la selectividad a isobuteno con el tiempo de reacción. Los resultados obtenidos en la reacción de oligomerización indican que la reducción en el tamaño de cristal de catalizadores basados en zeolitas es determinante para aumentar el tiempo de vida del catalizador. En el caso de las betas se ha visto que, incluso en el rango de los nanocristales, disminuir las dimensiones de 30-40 nm a 10-15 nm supone una mejora muy importante. En el caso de las ferrieritas se ha demostrado que es imprescindible que la reducción del cristal sea en la dirección en la que circulan los canales de 10 MR, que son los que participan en la reacción. En cuanto a la reacción de isomerización de buteno se ha conseguido aumentar la selectividad a isobuteno a valores superiores al 87 %, desde tiempos iniciales de reacción, para conversiones de buteno del 49 %, constantes durante al menos 50 h, mediante el empleo de una nanoferrierita parcialmente calcinada, en la que solo están presentes los centros activos en los canales de 10 MR. / [CA] L'augment constant en la demanda de combustibles sumat a la crisi energètica actual derivada d'una escassetat global de combustibles i agreujada per la suma de conseqüències de la pandèmia COVID-19, la guerra d'Ucraïna i la crisi del gas, ha provocat una recerca creixent de noves alternatives per obtindre combustibles. En aquest context, les refineries s'enfronten al repte tant de satisfer la demanda de combustibles líquids com de complir amb els requeriments de qualitat i mediambientals cada cop més estrictes. El procés d'oligomerització d'olefines lleugeres representa una ruta catalítica de gran interès per a l'obtenció de productes de composició i qualitat adequades per incorporar-los posteriorment als "pools" de gasolina, de combustible d'aviació i de dièsel. A més de la seua versatilitat cap a la producció d'un producte o altre en funció de les condicions de reacció i del tipus de catalitzador emprat, permet aprofitar corrents excedents de refineria o procedents de fonts renovables riques en olefines. En aquest procés, els catalitzadors àcids, i entre ells les zeolites, han demostrat ser els més adequats per a l'obtenció de destil·lats mitjans d'alta qualitat. Tot i això, els catalitzadors basats en zeolites presenten problemes difusionals que provoquen la seua ràpida desactivació. Per tot això, aquesta tesi s'ha centrat en la millora del procés d'oligomerització de pentè mitjançant l'ús de zeolites nanocristal·lines com a catalitzadors, per tal de minimitzar aquestes restriccions difusionals i augmentar-ne el temps de vida útil. Per a la primera part de la tesi s'ha seleccionat la zeolita de porus gran beta (BEA) com a catalitzador d'oligomerització i s'ha preparat una sèrie de betes nanocristalines amb diferents relacions Si/Al en medi fluorur i en medi OH. S'ha estudiat l'efecte de la reducció de la grandària de cristall i de la densitat de centres àcids Brönsted en el seu comportament catalític, i s'han caracteritzat els catalitzadors desactivats per estudiar el tipus d'espècies carbonoses formades, responsables de la pèrdua d'activitat, i la seua possible regeneració. La segona part de la tesi es centra a l'estudi del comportament catalític de la zeolita multiporus ferrierita (FER). Així, s'han sintetitzat una sèrie de ferrierites nanocristal·lines amb diferents grandàries de cristall i propietats texturals i àcides. D'una banda, s'han avaluat com a catalitzadors per a l'oligomerització del pente. D'altra banda, la millor nanoferrierita segons els resultats obtinguts en oligomerització s'ha estudiat com a catalitzador per a la isomerització estructural de butens a isobutè, ja que la ferrierita s'utilitza com a catalitzador al procés industrial d'isomerització. El seu comportament catalític s'ha comparat amb el d'una ferrierita comercial, una ferrierita jeràrquica, una ITQ-6 delaminada i una nanoferrierita parcialment calcinada. Aquest últim ha estat utilitzat per estudiar el paper que juga el coc en la millora de la selectivitat d'isobutè amb el temps en corrent. Els resultats obtinguts en la reacció d'oligomerització indiquen que la reducció en la grandària de cristall de catalitzadors basats en zeolites és determinant per augmentar el temps de vida del catalitzador. En el cas de les betes s'ha vist que, fins i tot en el rang dels nanocristalls, disminuir les dimensions de 30-40 nm a 10-15 nm suposa una millora molt important. En el cas de les ferrietes s'ha demostrat que és imprescindible que la reducció del vidre siga en la direcció on circulen els canals de 10 MR, que són els que participen a la reacció. Pel que fa a la reacció d'isomerització de butè, s'ha aconseguit augmentar la selectivitat a isobutè a valors superiors al 87 %, des de temps inicials de reacció, per a conversions de butè de 49 %, constants durant almenys 50 h mitjançant l'ús de una nanoferrierita parcialment calcinada, on només hi són presents els centres actius als canals de 10 MR. / [EN] The constant increase in the demands of fuels, together with the present energy crisis derived from the global fuels' shortage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the Ukraine war and the gas crisis, has forced refiners to search for alternative routes for fuels production. Thus, refineries face the challenge of satisfying both, the demand for liquid fuels and the quality and environmental requirements, increasingly strict. Light olefin oligomerization represents a catalytic route of high interest for the production of liquid fuels with the desired composition and quality to be incorporated to the gasoline, jet fuel or diesel pools. Besides its versatility in terms of product selectivity as a function of reaction conditions and catalyst employed, it allows the revalorization of low value refinery or bio-derived olefin-rich streams. Acid catalyst and, in particular, zeolites have proved to be the most suitable catalysts for the production of high quality distillates. However, zeolite-based catalysts present diffusional problems that lead to fast deactivation rates. Taking all this into account, the present thesis focuses on the improvement of the pentene oligomerization process by means of using nanocrystalline zeolites as catalysts, aiming to minimize diffusional restrictions and to increase their catalyst life. In the first part of the thesis, the large pore beta zeolite (BEA) has been selected as oligomerization catalyst, and a series of nanocristalline betas with different Si/Al ratios have been prepared in fluoride and in OH media. The influence of crystal size reduction and Brönsted acid site density on their catalytic performance has been studied and the spent catalysts have been characterized in order to study the type of carbon species formed, responsible for the activity loss, and their possible regeneration. The second part of the thesis focuses on the study of the catalytic performance of the multipore ferrierite. Thus, a series of nanocrystalline zeolites has been synthesized with different crystal sizes and textural and acidic properties. On the one hand, they have been evaluated as catalysts for the pentene oligomerization. On the other, the best nanoferrierite according to the results obtained in oligomerization has been studied as catalyst for the structural isomerization of butenes to isobutene, as ferrierita is used as catalyst in the industrial isomerization process. Its catalytic performance has been compared with that of a commercial ferrierita, a hierarchical ferrierite, a delaminated ITQ-6 and a nanoferrierite partially calcined. The latter has been used to study the role played by coke in the improvement with time on stream of the isobutene selectivity. The results obtained in the oligomerization reaction indicate that crystal size reduction in zeolite-based catalysts is key for increasing the catalysts life. In case of the beta zeolites it has been proved that decreasing the nanocrystals size from 30-40 nm to 10-15 nm leads to a very significant improvement in catalyst life. In the case of ferrierites it has been demonstrated that it is essential to reduce the crystal size in the direction parallel to the 10 MR channels, which are those involved in the oligomerization reaction. When used as catalysts for butenes isomerization, the use of partially calcined nanoferrierites, with active sites present only in the 10 MR, has led to isobutene selectivities above 87 % since very short times on stream, for butene conversion of 49 %, constant for at least 50 h. / Díaz Rey, MDR. (2023). Optimización de procesos de revalorización de olefinas ligeras mediante el empleo de catalizadores basados en zeolitas nanocristalinas [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/192869

Das Hauptthema dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung der Selbstorganisation organischer Moleküle an der Flüssig-Fest-Grenzfläche (LSI). Besondere Betonung liegt auf der Kontrolle der Selbstassemblierung durch geeignete Parameter: die Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung, die Konzentration der gelösten Moleküle, und die chemische Natur der gelösten Stoffe und Lösungsmittel. Die Untersuchungen wurden unter Verwendung der Rastertunnelmikroskopie (STM) durchgeführt. Der erste Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit ist die systematische Untersuchung der Auswirkung erhöhter Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung aus der Lösung auf die Selbstorganisation komplexer molekularer Architekturen an der LSI. Diese Untersuchungen wurden mit dem planaren Molekül Trimesinsäure (TMA), sowie dem nicht-planaren Molekül Benzen-1,3,5-triphosphonsäure (BTP) durchgeführt. Es wird gezeigt, dass der Polymorphismus der Adsorbatstrukturen von TMA und BTP durch die Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung der Moleküle aus der Lösung für verschiedene Lösungsmitteln unterschiedlicher Polarität, wie Phenyloctan, Octansäure und Undecanol, kontrolliert werden kann. Durch die Erhöhung der Temperatur des vorgeheiztem Graphitsubstrates kann die spezifische 2D supramolekulare Struktur and die entsprechende Packungsdichte der Moleküle in der Adsorbatschicht für jedes der untersuchten Lösungsmittel präzise eingestellt werden. Weiterhin wird der Einfluss der Konzentration auf die resultierende Anordnung der TMA Moleküle an der LSI durch ein weiteres Experiment abgeschätzt, bei welchem Rühren (von 0 h bis 40 h) der Lösungen mit verschiedenen Lösungsmitteln eingesetzt wurde. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die verschiedenen Präparationsmethoden (Erhöhung der Abscheidetemperatur oder Rühren) zu derselben Tendenz der Änderung der geordneten Strukturen sowie der Packungsdichte führt, weswegen man schlussfolgern kann, dass die Erhöhung der Konzentration an der LSI bei erhöhter Abscheidetemperatur ebenso der Hauptgrund für die beobachteten Änderungen ist. Der zweite Schwerpunkt dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung von chemischen Reaktionen der selbstassemblierenden Moleküle. Eine Veresterungsreaktion von TMA mit Undecanol wurde gefunden. Weiterhin wurde, als ein erster Schritt zur Untersuchung der Zwillingspolymerisation, die Oligomerisation des Zwillingsmonomers 2,2’-spirobi [4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) mit STM an der Grenzfläche zwischen der SBS-Undecanol-Lösung und einer Graphitoberfläche untersucht. Erstens wurde durch Ultraschallbehandlung der SBS Lösung in Undecanol für verschieden lange Zeiten die Oligomerisation der SBS Monomere ohne einen Katalysator an der LSI beobachtet. Zweitens konnte die Oligomerisation auch durch Erhöhung der Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung der Moleküle aus der Lösung initiiert werden. Durch die schrittweise Erhöhung der Temperatur des vorgeheizten Substrates konnten mehrere, verschiedene, periodische Anordnungen von Phenol‒Dimeren, ‒Trimeren, und –Pentameren u.s.w. gefunden werden. Weiterhin wird die Auswirkung der Abscheidetemperatur auf die Selbstorganisation an der LSI nur der Lösungsmittelmoleküle aus dem reinen Lösungsmittel beschrieben. Dies ist wichtig, da die Undecanol‒Moleküle stets mit den gelösten, in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Stoffen (TMA, BTP, SBS) koadsorbieren und lineare Muster bilden. / The main aim of this thesis is to study the self-assembly of organic molecules at the liquid-solid interface (LSI). Special emphasis is given to controlling the process of self-assembly via suitable parameters such as: the substrate temperature during the initial deposition, the concentration of dissolved molecules, or the chemical nature of solutes and solvents. The investigations are performed using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The first focus of this work is the systematic investigation of the effect of the substrate temperature during the deposition out of the solution on the self-assembly of complex molecular architectures at the LSI. These investigations have been done with the planar molecule trimesic acid (TMA), and the non-planar molecule benzene 1,3,5-triphosphonic acid (BTP). We show that the polymorphism of the adsorbate structures of TMA (also with BTP) can be controlled by the substrate temperature during the deposition of the molecules out of the solution for various solvents of different polarity such as phenyloctane, octanoic acid, and undecanol. By increasing the temperature of the pre-heated graphite substrate, the specific 2D supramolecular structure and the corresponding packing density in the adsorbate layer can be precisely tuned for each kind of the solvents studied. Furthermore, the influence of the concentration on the resulting self-assembly of TMA molecules at the LSI is estimated by another experiment using stirring (from 0 h to 40 h) of the solutions of different kinds of solvents. These results demonstrate that choosing different preparation methods (increasing deposition temperatures or stirring) lead to the same tendency in the change of the self-assembled structures as well as the tuning of the packing density from which it can also be concluded that the increase of the concentration at increased deposition temperatures is also the main reason for the observed changes. The second focus of this work is the investigation of chemical reactions of self-assembling molecules. The esterification of TMA with undecanol was observed. Moreover as a first step to study twin polymerization, the oligomerization of the twin monomer 2,2’-spirobi [4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) was investigated by STM at the SBS-undecanol solution/graphite interface. Firstly, by ultrasonicating the solution of SBS in undecanol for different times the oligomerization of SBS monomer without any catalyst has been observed at the LSI. Secondly, the oligomerization of SBS monomer can also be initiated by the substrate temperature during the deposition of the molecules out of the solution. By stepwise increasing the temperature of the pre-heated substrate, various periodic assemblies of phenolic dimer, trimer, pentamer resin, and so on were observed. Furthermore, the effect of deposition temperature on the self-assembly of solely solvent molecules from the pure liquid at the LSI is described, which is important because the undecanol solvent molecules are always co-adsorbed with the solutes used in this work (TMA, BTP, SBS) to form linear patterns.