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Increase of computational power and development of new methods in artificial intelligence allow these days many real-world problems to be solved automatically by a~computer program without human interaction. This includes automatized design of walking robots in a~physical virtual environment that can eventually result in construction of real robots. This work compares two different approaches to evolve virtual robotic organisms: artificial ontogeny, where the organism first grows using an~artificial ontogenetic process, and more direct methods. Furthermore, it proposes a~novel approach to evolve virtual robotic organisms: Hypercube-based artificial ontogeny that is combination of artificial ontogeny and Hypercube-based neuroevolution of augmenting topologies (HyperNEAT). Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

The American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, is a large extant archosaur and member of the Order Crocodilia. Crocodilian ontogeny has been studied in great detail, the skull being of particular interest. One aspect of the skull left unstudied is how individual cranial elements change through ontogeny independent of one another. This study observed morphological change in a growth series of 34 specimens of A. mississippiensis from ETSU Vertebrate Paleontology Lab collections. The premaxilla, maxilla, nasal, jugal, frontal, and parietal were analyzed using landmark morphometrics. The frontal, jugal, and parietal showed more allometric growth with the orbits reducing in size posteriorly. The premaxilla, maxilla, and nasal showed more isometric growth. This suggests the common observation that the snout elongates with age is mistaken. The cranium showed allometric growth in very early in life but more isometric growth after that. Unique to this study, the premaxilla showed almost no shape change throughout ontogeny.

Nutrient absorption is important in all stages of life. As the diet of an animal changes from birth on, morphological and biochemical adaptation can be anticipated in order to accommodate changing demands. The main focus of the present study was to examine the relationship between age and diet on the potential for peptide transport via PepT1 in the gastrointestinal tract of lambs and to relate changes of peptide transport capability to morphological changes. A 2x4 factorial arrangement of treatments was used with 32 crossbred lambs. Four blocks were created based upon gender, birth type (single or twin), birth weight, and birth date. Lambs were randomly allotted at birth to receive or not to receive a creep diet. All lambs were allowed to nurse. Sampling times of 2, 4, 6, or 8 wk were randomly allotted to lambs. Samples for RNA extraction and histological evaluation were taken from the dorsal rumen, ventral rumen, omasum, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Villi were about 7% shorter (P < 0.09) in lambs receiving creep feed. Papillary height and width increased linearly (P < 0.001 and P < 0.0001, respectively) with age. Total and keratinized epithelial cells in the stomach decreased (P < 0.03 and P < 0.004, respectively) with age and were fewer (P < 0.0002 and P < 0.0001, respectively) in lambs receiving creep feed. Creep feeding appears to have slightly altered the mucosal structure of the small intestine and it was advantageous in that it stimulated papillary growth and thus predisposed the rumen for the introduction of feed into the diet. A 2.8 kb oPepT1 mRNA was present in all tissues studied by 2 wk, and age did not significantly influence the abundance of oPepT1 mRNA in the small intestine or stomach. In the small intestine, abundance of oPepT1 mRNA was greatest (P < 0.0007) in the jejunum. In the stomach, abundance of oPepT1 mRNA was greatest (P < 0.01) in the dorsal rumen. In the stomach, particularly in the rumen, a greater abundance of oPepT1 mRNA was observed in lambs not receiving the creep diet. It seems likely that a stimulus for development is coming from the non-luminal direction, possibly blood-borne, and may be involved in the ontogenesis of oPepT1. Peptide transport appears to be a physiologically important process in the young lamb and the rumen appears to be involved in the transport of peptides, particularly in nursing lambs. / Master of Science

1. ABSTRACT This diploma thesis refers to human body composition and its alterations by physiological and pathological processes that occur during different stages of life. Fat mass, fat free mass and total body water represent the major components of the human body which are modified during infancy, childhood, puberty, pregnancy and adulthood. Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA), Dual Energy Absorptiometry (DEXA), Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are some methods which are utilized for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of the body composition according to nutritional and pathological state of each individual, targeting the optimal clinical outcome. During growth, the amount of total body water elevates through infancy but it gradually declines in the next stages of life. Fat mass or total body fat possesses higher values during infancy, pregnancy and aging whereas it increases preferentially in female population at puberty. Muscle mass is elevated significantly in males during puberty and declines gradually due to aging. Osteoporosis, obesity and wasting diseases such as anorexia, cachexia and sarcopenia provoke severe disturbances in body composition compartments resulting in high rates of morbidity and mortality of the population.

Faculty of Humanities School of Education 8900024a watsonp@clm.wits.ac.za / An understanding of how and what students learn is crucial to improving teaching and learning practices in universities. In the South African context, the need to achieve equity in outcome (success) gives this imperative a sharper urgency. This study investigates the development in student understandings of the concept ‘law’ during a semester of tertiary-level introductory legal study. The study begins from the understanding that ontogenetic development, in the Vygotskian sense, arises from interaction in the social domain, prior to becoming internalized as individual mental structure. The study is thus based on an understanding that the social domain plays a critical role in ontogenesis. In order to make the role of this domain evident, the study combines a Vygotskian frame, and a Vygotskian understanding of the role played by semiotic mediation in development, with a Discourse account of language. The work of Gee is used for this purpose. It is suggested that the two sets of theory are complementary, each providing a dimension that is comparatively lacking in the other. Additional literature is drawn on to further clarify the individual / social relation and it is suggested that the social domain influences individual development in at least two ways: first through the action of context, and how this acts to position text and individuals acting within it; and secondly through historical positioning: through the cultural model understandings brought to the task by the participants. From this theory is drawn a framework for analysis of the empirical data studied. This data included two essays written by students on the topic ‘What is Law’, the first at the beginning, and the second after six months, of introductory legal study. Additional data studied included the course-pack materials of the course, and transcripts of the lecture series. The primary question addressed in the research is: how can an account of first-year undergraduate students’ development of the concept ‘law’ in an introductory course on law be provided, such that the analysis enables an understanding of the role of the social domain in ontogenesis? Specific questions addressed in analysis included whether cultural model understandings, which differed between the different groups studied, were evident in initial student writings, and if so, whether these understandings might help or hinder concept development; what power relations were evident in the context, and how these could be expected to position students; and finally, what Discourse appropriate changes (development) could be read in student texts, and how this could be related both to contextual positioning and prior knowledge held. The findings of this study are specific to the study and cannot be extrapolated to different circumstances. However, at the empirical level the study suggests that factors likely to be associated with success in this context include Discourse familiarity, content foregrounding in prior knowledge structures, the development of authority in writing, and identity shifts towards an ‘insider’ position. Factors found to be associated with lack of success include conflicts of new knowledge with prior knowledge structures, a lack of recognition of the task constraints, a strong identification with a different community, and confusion resulting from contradictions in the mediation provided. These factors may help to understand differential performance in the context by students from different cultural backgrounds. At a broader level, the study suggests that the addition of a Discourse account to a Vygotskian understanding of development provides tools for analysis which are generative in contributing to understandings of how the social impacts on the individual in development. These tools make explicit the intractable nature of the content, form and values combination which functions in language to reproduce context, and through this positions individual development-in-context. This positioning does not act deterministically: through trajectory and choice, identity and individual positioning are a crucial construct in learning. Finally, the study provides evidence of the complexity of the interaction of this content, form, values combination in development: an analysis which focused on content alone would not have captured the richness of development which this method made evident

O objetivo central dessa dissertação é realizar uma análise crítica sobre a aproximação da Análise do Comportamento (AC) ao estudo do desenvolvimento. Para tanto, foram lidos textos pertinentes à temática e, a partir disso, realizaram-se reflexões sobre a forma como a abordagem tem se apropriado e pode vir a se apropriar do que é relativo ao estudo das mudanças ontogenéticas. Dada a impossibilidade de abarcar todas as relações possíveis entre AC e desenvolvimento, alguns aspectos foram selecionados para serem trabalhados. Eles foram divididos em quatro módulos com objetivos específicos. MÓDULO I: O objetivo foi discutir a confusão histórica entre Psicologia da Infância (PI) e Psicologia do Desenvolvimento (PD), bem como a influência desse cenário sobre a proposta analítico-comportamental analisada. Sugerimos que, embora a AC apresente uma formulação teórica de desenvolvimento que transcende a infância, a grande ênfase da área recaiu sobre o estudo da criança. Apontamos a necessidade de expandir as pesquisas desenvolvimentistas a diferentes fases da vida e a diferentes espécies. MÓDULO II: O objetivo foi discutir como a Análise do Comportamento lida com a questão da direcionalidade das mudanças e analisar a utilidade de conceitos como estrutura, estágio e pré-requisito. Concluímos que a direcionalidade das mudanças sempre deve ser definida de maneira probabilística, pautando-se nas relações estabelecidas entre o comportamento de um organismo e seu ambiente. Sugerimos que os referidos conceitos podem ser úteis à abordagem a depender da maneira com a qual forem empregados. MÓDULO III: Nosso objetivo foi avaliar a pertinência da divisão feita entre desenvolvimento biológico e psicológico na perspectiva da AC. Uma vez constatada a necessidade de aprimoramentos nessa divisão, um segundo objetivo do módulo residiu em discutir a adoção de uma perspectiva sistêmica como possibilidade de estabelecimento de um diálogo mais adequado entre a AC e as demais ciências do desenvolvimento. MÓDULO IV: Considerando-se as reflexões surgidas no restante da dissertação, o quarto módulo teve como objetivo refletir sobre possíveis questões que possam permear, no futuro, o estudo do desenvolvimento na perspectiva analíticocomportamental. Sugerimos que, além de ser importante estudar a construção de repertórios, a investigação da gênese dos processos comportamentais desde a fase prénatal desponta como uma área promissora de pesquisa. Como ponto comum de conclusão entre os módulos, apontamos a necessidade de mais discussões críticas sobre o que concerne ao estudo do desenvolvimento pela Análise do Comportamento / The main goal of this dissertation is to perform a critical analysis on the approach of the Behavior Analysis (BA) to the study of development. Thus, texts related to the theme were read and thereafter reflections were made about the way with which the approach has appropriated and is able to appropriate of what is related to the study of ontogenetic changes. Given the impossibility of span all the possible relations between BA and development, some aspects were chosen to be worked upon. They were divided in four modules with specific aims. MODULE I: The aim as to discuss the historical confusion between Child Psychology (CP) and Developmental Psychology (DP), as well as the influence of this scenario on the analyzed BA proposal. We suggest that, although BA presents a theoretical formulation that transcends childhood, the great emphasis of the area fell upon the study of the child. We point out the need to expand developmental researches to different stages of life and different species. MODULE II: The aim was to discuss how Behavior Analysis deals with the issue of the directionality of changes and analyze the utility of concepts such as structure, stage and prerequisite. We conclude that the directionality of changes must always be defined in a probabilistic way, being measured in the established relations among the behavior of an organism and its environment. We suggest that the referred concepts may be useful to the approach depending on the way it is employed. MODULE III: Our aim was to assess the relevance of the division made between biological and psychological development in the perspective of the BA. Once the need to improvements in this division is verified, a second objective of the module consisted in discussing the adoption of a systemic perspective as a possibility of establishing a more adequate dialogue among BA and the other developmental sciences. MODULE IV: Considering the reflections that arose in the rest of the dissertation, the fourth module aimed to reflect about possible questions that may permeate, in the future, the study of development in the BA perspective. We suggest that, besides being important to study the construction of repertoires, the investigation of the genesis of behavioral processes since prenatal stage rises as a promising research area. As a common ground for discussion among the modules, we stress the need of more critical discussions about what concerns the study of development by the Behavior Analysis

O presente trabalho é uma leitura da relação entre a ontogênese e a ética na filosofia de Gilbert Simondon. Pretende-se mostrar como há uma relação de analogia e imbricação entre ética e ontogênese no pensamento do autor, estas correlações nos permitem apresentar a filosofia simondoniana como uma teoria metaestável que se constitui como permanentemente aberta às novas problemáticas do ser e ao devir do devir. Esta teoria, simultaneamente, ética e ontogenética é excedida em seus modos de captação dos processos de individuação por suas relações com a informação e com a dimensão pré-individual do ser. Apresentamos, em um segundo momento, como a ontogênese simondoniana nos permite pensar uma ética existente nas processualidades de todos os seres, do cristal aos seres humanos, das moléculas aos animais, e também dos objetos técnicos. Por fim, mostramos como Simondon constrói uma concepção singular de sujeito como ação autoproblematizante do ser que faz com que o indivíduo seja, ao mesmo tempo, mais-que-unidade e mais-que-identidade em relação a si mesmo. O sujeito simondoniano é capaz de captar a ética como sentido da ontogênese e agir politicamente apostando todos os possíveis em experiências de transformação de si. O sujeito, ao conjugar em si as dimensões pré-individual, individual e transindividual do ser, possui um devir que é, simultaneamente, individual e coletivo. Com estes desenvolvimentos, pretendemos apresentar como a filosofia de Simondon nos oferece contribuições muitos relevantes para pensarmos possíveis transformações espirituais e políticas para os modos de vida em nossa contemporaneidade. / This work aims to be an analysis of the relationship between ethics and ontogenesis in the Gilbert Simondons philosophy. It intends to show that there is an analogycal and inseparable relation between ethics and ontogenesis in his thought. These correlations allow us to show the Simondons philosophy as a metastable theory which creates itself as permanently open to new problematics of the being and to the becoming of becoming. This theory, at the same time, ethical and ontogenetical is always overpassed, in its means of apprehension of the individuation processes, by its relations with information and with the pré-individual dimension of the being. Secondly, we sustain that Simondons ontogenesis allow us to think about an ethics which exists in the being processuality, from crystal to human beings, from molecules to animals, and also in the technical objects processuality. Finally, we show that Simondon constructs a single notion of subject as selfproblematic action of the being that implicates an individual more-than-unity and, simultaneously, more-than-indentity regarding itself. The simondonean subject is able to apprehend ethics as the meaning of the ontogenesis and to act politically risking all the possibles to transform itself. The pre-individual, individual and transindividual dimensions of the being produce an becoming to the subject, which is both individual and collective. According to these arguments, we intend to conclude that the Simondons philosophy gives us very important contributions to think some spiritual and political changes in our contemporary way of life.

O objetivo central dessa dissertação é realizar uma análise crítica sobre a aproximação da Análise do Comportamento (AC) ao estudo do desenvolvimento. Para tanto, foram lidos textos pertinentes à temática e, a partir disso, realizaram-se reflexões sobre a forma como a abordagem tem se apropriado e pode vir a se apropriar do que é relativo ao estudo das mudanças ontogenéticas. Dada a impossibilidade de abarcar todas as relações possíveis entre AC e desenvolvimento, alguns aspectos foram selecionados para serem trabalhados. Eles foram divididos em quatro módulos com objetivos específicos. MÓDULO I: O objetivo foi discutir a confusão histórica entre Psicologia da Infância (PI) e Psicologia do Desenvolvimento (PD), bem como a influência desse cenário sobre a proposta analítico-comportamental analisada. Sugerimos que, embora a AC apresente uma formulação teórica de desenvolvimento que transcende a infância, a grande ênfase da área recaiu sobre o estudo da criança. Apontamos a necessidade de expandir as pesquisas desenvolvimentistas a diferentes fases da vida e a diferentes espécies. MÓDULO II: O objetivo foi discutir como a Análise do Comportamento lida com a questão da direcionalidade das mudanças e analisar a utilidade de conceitos como estrutura, estágio e pré-requisito. Concluímos que a direcionalidade das mudanças sempre deve ser definida de maneira probabilística, pautando-se nas relações estabelecidas entre o comportamento de um organismo e seu ambiente. Sugerimos que os referidos conceitos podem ser úteis à abordagem a depender da maneira com a qual forem empregados. MÓDULO III: Nosso objetivo foi avaliar a pertinência da divisão feita entre desenvolvimento biológico e psicológico na perspectiva da AC. Uma vez constatada a necessidade de aprimoramentos nessa divisão, um segundo objetivo do módulo residiu em discutir a adoção de uma perspectiva sistêmica como possibilidade de estabelecimento de um diálogo mais adequado entre a AC e as demais ciências do desenvolvimento. MÓDULO IV: Considerando-se as reflexões surgidas no restante da dissertação, o quarto módulo teve como objetivo refletir sobre possíveis questões que possam permear, no futuro, o estudo do desenvolvimento na perspectiva analíticocomportamental. Sugerimos que, além de ser importante estudar a construção de repertórios, a investigação da gênese dos processos comportamentais desde a fase prénatal desponta como uma área promissora de pesquisa. Como ponto comum de conclusão entre os módulos, apontamos a necessidade de mais discussões críticas sobre o que concerne ao estudo do desenvolvimento pela Análise do Comportamento / The main goal of this dissertation is to perform a critical analysis on the approach of the Behavior Analysis (BA) to the study of development. Thus, texts related to the theme were read and thereafter reflections were made about the way with which the approach has appropriated and is able to appropriate of what is related to the study of ontogenetic changes. Given the impossibility of span all the possible relations between BA and development, some aspects were chosen to be worked upon. They were divided in four modules with specific aims. MODULE I: The aim as to discuss the historical confusion between Child Psychology (CP) and Developmental Psychology (DP), as well as the influence of this scenario on the analyzed BA proposal. We suggest that, although BA presents a theoretical formulation that transcends childhood, the great emphasis of the area fell upon the study of the child. We point out the need to expand developmental researches to different stages of life and different species. MODULE II: The aim was to discuss how Behavior Analysis deals with the issue of the directionality of changes and analyze the utility of concepts such as structure, stage and prerequisite. We conclude that the directionality of changes must always be defined in a probabilistic way, being measured in the established relations among the behavior of an organism and its environment. We suggest that the referred concepts may be useful to the approach depending on the way it is employed. MODULE III: Our aim was to assess the relevance of the division made between biological and psychological development in the perspective of the BA. Once the need to improvements in this division is verified, a second objective of the module consisted in discussing the adoption of a systemic perspective as a possibility of establishing a more adequate dialogue among BA and the other developmental sciences. MODULE IV: Considering the reflections that arose in the rest of the dissertation, the fourth module aimed to reflect about possible questions that may permeate, in the future, the study of development in the BA perspective. We suggest that, besides being important to study the construction of repertoires, the investigation of the genesis of behavioral processes since prenatal stage rises as a promising research area. As a common ground for discussion among the modules, we stress the need of more critical discussions about what concerns the study of development by the Behavior Analysis