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Thesis advisor: Elizabeth Shlala / This thesis explores how the Armenian Genocide affected and changed Armenian womens’ roles in post-Ottoman society and how the national rebuilding project relied upon women in both traditional and "modern" positions; specifically, their roles as mothers, educators, nurses, workers, patriots, as well as addresses the fluidity of identity and belonging in post-genocide Armenian society. Based on their experiences during the Armenian Genocide, women received different treatment from the larger Armenian society, and had different, sometimes contradictory roles prescribed to them. Women’s different treatment based on their genocide experiences highlight the complexities, challenges, and contradictions of the Armenian national rebuilding project, as well as the centrality of gender in this project and Armenian society as a whole. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: History.

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The Macedonian Question has attracted much attention since the 1990s due to the emergence of the dispute over the name of Macedonia between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia. In Greece there is a prolific literature on this subject, but some basic questions remain unanswered. In particular, the role of the government, and of government institutions – especially the Ministry of Foreign Affairs – have attracted little or no attention: on the contrary, historians have focused on the „heroes‟ of the conflict, the fighters themselves, the result being that the Macedonian Question is understood as a military fight of good versus evil. In this D.Phil. thesis, we examine how the government got involved with the Macedonian Question and second, in what ways it was involved, especially given that an official acknowledgement of the government‟s involvement with the paramilitary operations was diplomatically impossible. We approached these questions by examining the personal archives of Greek politicians and diplomats (most notably of the Dragoumis family) and the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, especially the Archives of the Greek Embassies in London, Paris and Constantinople, which have only recently become available. The key finding is that the Greek government, despite its declarations to the opposite effect, was involved heavily with the paramilitary fighting in Macedonia, but also that the official involvement with Macedonia was constrained and influenced by electoral concerns and by the powerful Macedonian lobbies in Athens. Decisions were rarely made in a rational, bureaucratic way, but were more often reached after consultations with journalists, military officers and intellectuals and always bearing domestic political realities in mind. These findings suggest that future research should move away from understanding the „Macedonian Struggle‟ solely as a military issue, and put it into the wider context of early twentieth-century Greek political and diplomatic history.

This study explores the development of a discourse of global civility in English travel writing in the period 1636-1863. It argues that global civility is at the heart of cross-cultural exchanges in both the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, and that its evolution can best be traced by comparing accounts by travellers to the already familiar Ottoman Empire with writings of those who ventured into the largely unknown worlds of the South Pacific. In analysing these accounts, this study examines how their contexts were informed by Enlightenment philosophy, global interconnections and even-handed exchanges across cultural divides. In so doing, it demonstrates that intercultural encounters from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries were much more complex and multi-layered than one-sided Eurocentric histories often suggest. The first case study analyses the inception of global civility in Henry Blount’s Voyage into the Levant (1636). In his account, Blount frequently admires Ottoman imperial achievements at the same time as he represents the powerful Islamic empire as a model that lends itself to emulation for the emerging global reach of the English nation. The next chapter explores the practice of global civility in George Keate’s Account of the Pelew Islands (1788), which tells a story of shipwreck, salvage and return. Captain Wilson and his men lost their vessel off the Palau archipelago, established mutually improving relations with the natives and after their return familiarised English readers with the Palauan world in contemporary idioms of sentiment and sensibility. Chapter four examines comparable instances of civility by discussing Henry Abbott’s A Trip…Across the Grand Desart of Arabia (1789). Abbott is convinced that the desert Arabs are civil subjects in their own right and frequently challenges both received wisdom and deeply entrenched stereotypes by describing Arabic cultural practices in great detail. The fifth chapter follows the famous pickpocket George Barrington and the housewife Mary Ann Parker, respectively, to the newly established penal colonies in Australia in the first half of the 1790s. Their accounts present a new turn on global civility by virtue of registering the presence of convicts, natives and slaves in increasingly ambivalent terms, thus illustrating how inclusive discourses start to crack under the pressures of trafficking in human lives. The next chapter explores similar discursive fractures in Charles Colville Frankland’s Travels to and from Constantinople (1829). Frankland is at once sensitive to life in the Islamic world and aggressively biased when some of its practices and traditions seem to be incommensurate with his English identity. The final case study establishes the ways in which representational ambivalences give way to a discourse of colonialism in the course of the nineteenth century by analysing F. E. Maning’s (fictional) autobiography Old New Zealand (1863). After spending his early life in the Antipodes among the Maori, Maning changes sides after the death of his native wife and becomes judge of the Native Land Court. This transition, as well as Maning’s mocking representation of the Maori, mirrors the ease with which colonisers manage their subject peoples in the age of empire and at the same time marks the evaporation of global civility’s inclusiveness. By tracing the development of global civility from its inception over its emphatic practice to its decline, the present study emphasises the improvisational complexities of cross-cultural encounters. The spaces in which they are transacted – both the sea and the beach on the one hand; and the desert on the other – encourage mutuality and reciprocity because European travellers needed local knowledge in order to be able to brave, cross or map them. The locals, in turn, acted as hosts, guides or interpreters, facilitating commercial and cultural traffic in areas whose social fabrics, environmental conditions and intertwined histories often differed decisively from the familiar realms of Europe in the long eighteenth century.

La ville d'Antioche fut parmi les villes qui aspiraient une prédominance à la culture, à l'éloquence, à l'enseignement, à l'art mais aussi à l'artisanat et au commerce. Un lieu privilégié de la rencontre avec le reste du monde hellénique et, en même temps, la porte de l'Asie profonde, une ville puissante du Proche-Orient, une base administrative et militaire de premier ordre.Le but est de décrire une ville ottomane formée de quelques quartiers, sa campagne, sa population hétérogène qui vivent essentiellement de l'agriculture, de l'artisanat et du commerce. Une situation décrite dans les registres ottomans conçus au départ pour recenser les foyers fiscaux, les lieux habités, les activités de la population et la production locale, afin de fixer les impôts à récolter. Ce travail est renforcé par des récits de voyage qui décrivent une situation différente, mélancolique et nostalgique à la fois. L'intérêt est de peindre un tableau de la ville tout en essayant de comprendre sa viabilité dans l'espace ottoman. Associés aux sources ottomanes, les textes des voyageurs sont précieux pour un rapprochement des éléments essentiels de l'histoire de la ville.Enfin, pour mieux comprendre la situation de la ville à l'époque ottomane, survoler l'époque mamelouk nous est indispensable. Nous avons ajouté un chapitre sur la chute de la Principauté latine d'Antioche, la division administrative de la Syrie du Nord, la description de la ville par les chroniques et récits de voyage, les bouleversements et la situation générale sous les Mamelouks. Ce chapitre sert de guide afin de tracer un tableau fidèle et jeter la lumière sur une foule de points demeurés obscurs. / The city of Antioch was among the cities that aspired to a predominance culture, eloquence, education, art, but also crafts and trade. A privileged place of encounter with the rest of the Hellenic world, and at the same time, the door of deep Asia, a powerful city of the Middle East, administrative and military order first base.Meanwhile, this work is enhanced by travel stories that describe a different, melancholic and nostalgic at the same time position. The advantage of this formula is to paint a picture of the city while trying to understand the viability of the Ottoman space. Associated with the Ottoman sources, the texts of travelers are valuable for a reconciliation of the essential elements of the history of the city.In this thesis, the goal is not to show again the saga of the metropolis, but to describe an Ottoman town consisted of a few neighborhoods, countryside, its heterogeneous population that lives mainly on agriculture, crafts and trade. A situation described in the Ottoman records originally designed to identify tax households, populated places, the activities of the local population and production, to set taxes to collect.Finally, to better understand the situation of the city in the Ottoman era, fly over the previous period, the Mamluk era, is indispensable. That is why we have added a chapter on the fall of the Latin Principality of Antioch, the administrative division of the northern Syria, the description of the city and tales from travel disruption and the general situation in the Mamluks. This chapter, we consider it useful and interesting to our thesis serves as a guide to draw a fair and shed light on a host of issues remained unclear.

OTTOMAN HOUSES IN ANATOLIA AND THE BALKANS Ottoman houses in Anatolia and the Balkans are situated in the areas, which were the part of the Ottoman Empire during many centuries and where the Ottoman centralized legal system was applied. This houses belonged to Muslims and Christians, who were local landowners, merchants, and craftsmen. Design of the houses reflects the statute and lifestyle of their owners. Most of the preserved houses originate from the 17th century until the transition of the 19th to the 20th century. They are multi-storeyed houses, which have some external and internal features. It is typical that they have overlapping upper storey to the sides, which are buttressed by wooden braces. Most frequently their ground floor is walled from stones and the upper floors has wooden, half-timbered frame with the filling of an unburnt bricks. The ground floor was used as a service area and on the upper floors there are habitable rooms. These rooms were divided into the male and the female-family section, they could be also divided according to the seasons to the rooms for the winter living and for the summer living. Specific feature of the rooms in ottoman houses is mulifunctionality.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of History / David A. Graff / Cotton was the most important commodity in the economy of the industrialized Western world in the mid-nineteenth century, as vital then as petroleum is today. It was widely believed that a prolonged interruption of the cotton supply would lead not merely to a severe economic depression, but possibly to the collapse of Western Civilization. Three quarters of the world’s cotton supply came from the Southern states of the United States. When the American Civil War erupted and cotton supplies were cut off, the British Cotton Supply Association was faced with the difficult task of establishing cotton cultivation in other locations. In order for the effort to succeed, the British had to obtain and distribute millions of pounds of American cotton seeds. The United States government, the Illinois Central Railroad, and a number of organizations and individuals cooperated to obtain the necessary seeds that the British had to have. American farm equipment manufacturers assisted by designing, making, and distributing portable cotton gins and other implements needed by cotton growers overseas. U.S. consuls overseas sometimes assisted the Cotton Supply Association with seed and equipment distribution. This dissertation is about the implementation of the grand economic strategies of the United States and Great Britain. It is also about the people who implemented those strategies on the ground, people as diverse as Union agents who went into Confederate territory to procure cotton seeds, farmers in Illinois, British consuls who distributed seeds grown in Illinois to farmers in the Ottoman Empire, and English colonists who flocked to Fiji with high hopes of becoming cotton planters. It attempts to measure the impact of the cotton boom and subsequent bust that resulted from the American Civil War on societies around the world.