The activities of the Department of National Defence (DND) account for more than half of the Government of Canada's greenhouse gas emissions. This research examines a clean energy propulsion solution to DND’s carbon footprint using a Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) battery hybrid powertrain for military armoured vehicles as a means of meeting Canada's Greening Defence initiatives. Real-world military vehicle operational data is used to create the operation profile for military vehicle powertrain design requirements. Following the model-based design (MBD) approach, the vehicle dynamics, fuel cell system and powertrain system models implemented in MATLAB/Simulink are used to predict the vehicle's performance, emissions, and operational costs. This research examines the feasibility of using a fuel cell-battery electric powertrain for a military armoured vehicle and produces a feasible design solution to meet the identified vehicle operation and performance requirements. The fuel cost and powertrain component performance degradations are modelled to predict the operation costs of the clean vehicle with the benefits of reduced emissions, noise and thermal profiles. The results of this research suggest there are viable, clean propulsion system and energy storage system (ESS) configurations that satisfy the requirements of the operational profile of military armoured vehicles. This research serves as a foundation for the use of clean military vehicle propulsion in Canada. / Graduate

Sustainable energy management becomes more important due to the ever more actual problems of environmental pollution and limited natural resources. The fuel cell technology is one of the most attractive solutions in this sense. During the past decades fuel cells have been investigated and demonstrated for several applications. One of the most attractive applications is using fuel cell system for stationary energy cogeneration (CHP), since they are capable of producing thermal energy and power with higher efficiencies and in a more environmentally friendly way than most of the conventional commercial techniques. The purpose of this work is to investigate the feasibility of integrating a PEMFC system with a commercial greenhouse and to assess the mutual benefits deriving from this integration. The main task of this connection is to recover the low temperature wasted heat delivered by the PEMFC system and by the fuel reforming process in order to meet the thermal energy demand of a commercial greenhouse. In this study an energy analysis was performed in order to evaluate the energetic performance of the system. To achieve this aim, first, a model of the whole system was developed in TRNSYS environment. In addition to the aforesaid, a sensitivity analysis was also carried out varying the main influencing operating parameters in order to evaluate an optimal configuration of the system. Considering a commercial greenhouse’s usual thermal and electrical demand, the results shows that by integrating a 3 KW fuel cell system, able to cover approximately the 25% of the electricity requested during the year, and taking into account both heat recovery from the fuel cell system and the ones from the fuel reforming, roughly 30% of the heating demand of a 1000 m2 commercial greenhouse can be supplied.

A series of steady-state microscopic continuum models of the cathode catalyst layer (active layer) of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell are developed and presented. This model incorporates O₂ species and ion transport while taking a discrete look at the platinum particles within the active layer. The original 2-dimensional axisymmetric Thin Film and Agglomerate Models of Bultel, Ozil, and Durand [8] were initially implemented, validated, and used to generate various results related to the performance of the active layer with changes in the thermodynamic conditions and geometry. The Agglomerate Model was then further developed, implemented, and validated to include among other things pores, flooding, and both humidified air and humidified O₂. All models were implemented and solved using FEMAP™ and a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver, developed by Blue Ridge Numerics Inc. (BRNI) called CFDesign™. The use of these models for the discrete modeling of platinum particles is shown to be beneficial for understanding the behavior of a fuel cell. The addition of gas pores is shown to promote high current densities due to increased species transport throughout the agglomerate. Flooding is considered, and its effect on the cathode active layer is evaluated. The model takes various transport and electrochemical kinetic parameters values from the literature in order to do a parametric study showing the degree to which temperature, pressure, and geometry are crucial to overall performance. This parametric study quantifies among a number of other things the degree to which lower porosities for thick active layers and higher porosities for thin active layers are advantageous to fuel cell performance. Cathode active layer performance is shown not to be solely a function of catalyst surface area but discrete catalyst placement within the agglomerate. / Master of Science

The catalyst layer of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is a porous mixture of polymer, carbon, and platinum. The characteristics of the catalyst layer play a critical role in determining the performance of the PEM fuel cell. In this research, sample membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) are prepared using various combinations of polymer and carbon loadings while the platinum catalyst surface area is held constant. For each MEA, polarization curves are determined at common operating conditions. The polarization curves are compared to assess the effects of the catalyst layer composition. The results show that both Nafion and carbon content significantly affect MEA performance. The physical characteristics of the catalyst layer including porosity, thickness, active platinum surface area, ohmic resistance, and apparent Nafion film thickness are investigated to explain the variation in performance. The results show that for the range of compositions considered in this work, the most important factors are the platinum surface area and the apparent Nafion film thickness. / Master of Science

Electrical shorting through the proton exchange membrane (PEM) is a form of early failure commonly found in PEM fuel cells. In order to improve the durability and thus the commercial potential for PEM fuel cells, this form of failure must be understood and mitigated. This research investigates whether complete penetration is the most likely cause of shorting and establishes general parameters (force, contact pressure, temperature, and time) that lead to shorting in a typical PEM material, Nafion® NRE211. Data was obtained from a novel indentation apparatus that was coupled with an electrical circuit to assess the force and depth of penetration at which shorting occurs in a PEM at temperatures ranging from 70ï °C to 100ï °C. The results show that shorting occurs when full penetration is reached, based on both displacement at shorting, and resistance of the electrical circuit at shorting. In addition, a finite element model was created in a commercial finite element tool (Abaqus) in an attempt to predict time to penetration under loads and geometric configurations typically found in PEM fuel cells. The finite element model was investigated for use with standard Abaqus material modules (e.g. two-layer viscoplastic and hyperelastic-viscoelastic) describing Nafion® behavior. The results suggest that the standard material models do not sufficiently describe Nafion® behavior in this particular application and suggest the need for alternative material models that capture both the viscous and plastic nature of Nafion®. / Master of Science

Fuel cell system models are key tools for automotive fuel cell system engineers to properly size components to meet design parameters without compromising efficiency by over-sizing parasitic components. A transient fuel cell system level model is being developed that includes a simplified transient thermal and parasitics model. Model validation is achieved using a small 1.2 kW fuel cell system, due to its availability. While this is a relatively small stack compared to a full size automotive stack, the power, general thermal behavior, and compressor parasitics portions of the model can be scaled to any number of cells with any size membrane area. With flexibility in membrane size and cell numbers, this model can be easily scaled to match full automotive stacks of any size. The electrical model employs a generalized polarization curve to approximate system performance and efficiency parameters needed for the other components of the model. General parameters of a stack's individual cells must be known to scale the stack model. These parameters are usually known by the time system level design begins. The thermal model relies on a lumped capacity approximation of an individual cell system with convective cooling. From the thermal parameters calculated by the model, a designer can effectively size thermal components to remove stack thermal loads. The transient thermal model was found to match experimental data well. The steady state and transient sections of the curve have good agreement during warm up and cool down cycles. In all, the model provides a useful tool for system level engineers in the early stages of stack system development. The flexibility of this model will be critical for providing engineers with the ability to look at possible solutions for their fuel cell power requirements. / Master of Science

The typical catalyst layer structure for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells has changed little over the last two decades. A new electrode design with improved control over factors such as ionic and electrical pathways, porosity, and catalyst placement, could allow the application of less expensive catalyst alternatives. In this work, a novel electrode design based on ionomer-coated carbon nanofibers is proposed and studied. Governing equations for this design were established, and a mathematical model was created and solved using MATLAB to predict the performance of the new electrode design. A parametric study was performed to identify the design variables that had the most significant effect on performance. The best performing catalyst layer design studied with this model produces a current density of 1.1 A cm-2 at 600 mV which is better than state-of-the-art cathode designs. The results offer insight into the performance of ionomer-coated carbon nanofiber catalyst layers and can guide the fabrication and testing of these promising catalyst layer structures. / Master of Science / Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells have the potential to replace traditional energy conversion systems in many applications, however their widespread adoption is currently limited by their high cost and insufficient durability. PEM fuel cells are expensive because they require the use of platinum as a catalyst. Currently, less expensive non-platinum catalysts, must be used in much higher amounts in the catalyst layer to achieve similar electrochemical activity, creating very thick catalyst layers. Traditional fuel cell catalyst layer structures are designed to be thin and perform poorly when thick enough to accommodate non-platinum catalysts. This work proposes a novel catalyst layer design based on ionomer-coated carbon nanofibers that can allow for thicker catalyst layers and much higher catalyst loadings. A mathematical model was developed for the novel catalyst layer based on first principles. The model was solved using MATLAB to predict the performance of the new catalyst layer design. A parametric study was performed to identify the critical design variables and their effect on catalyst layer performance. The best performing catalyst layer design studied with this model produced a current density of 1.1 A cm-2 at 600mV, which is better than state-of-the-art fuel cell designs. This work is meant to offer insight into the performance of an ionomer-coated nanofiber catalyst layer and to guide future research in the fabrication of high performance fuel cells based on this novel catalyst layer architecture.

In recent years a significant portion of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) work has been focused on understanding and optimizing the functions of the microporous layer (MPL). Researchers have found that including this layer, composed of carbon black and TeflonTM (PTFE), between the gas diffusion layer (GDL) and catalyst layer (CL) of PEMFCs improves performance. The major benefit of the MPL in conventional fuel cells is that it improves water management and reduces contact resistances between cell layers. Although the functions of the MPL in conventional PEMFCs are well understood, the essential functions and optimal formulation of the layer in planar PEMFCs which operate without stack compression, are for the most part unknown. This work determines the essential functions and optimal composition, loading and sintering pressure of the MPL in a planar fuel cell design called a Ribbon Fuel Cell. Adhesion as well as performance data were gathered to determine the essential functions and formulation of the MPL which leads to high performance and durability in Ribbon Fuel Cells. Statistical models were created based on performance data of cells constructed with various MPLs; and a MPL composed of 45 wt% PTFE, loaded at 3.5 mg/cm° and sintered between 20 and 40 psi was found to exhibit optimal performance and durability. The reason why such a high PTFE content yields optimal results is because it strengthens the MPL, allowing it to successfully join various cell layers together, a function that is essential in Ribbon Cells which operate without external stack compression. / Master of Science

The development and evaluation of a fuel cell test stand incorporating various methods for controlling the temperature and humidity of fuel cell reactants is described. The test stand is capable of accurately metering gas flows, controlling the temperature and humidity of the gases, and delivering the gases to the fuel cell in a safe manner. Additionally, the test stand can measure the voltage and current produced by the fuel cell during operation. Two test stands were constructed and evaluated, one using steam injection for fuel cell stacks and the other using flash evaporation for individual fuel cells. Both test stands were shown to provide adequate control at the upper end of the design range. The flash evaporation test apparatus was used to investigate the effect of inlet gas humidity on fuel cell performance. The results from this investigation showed that, for a fuel cell and reactant temperature of 75°C, the best performance was achieved with a high relative humidity (90%RH) for the hydrogen and a comparatively low relative humidity (60%) for the air. / Master of Science

La pile à combustible apparaît comme une technologie prometteuse pour la conversion énergétique à faible impact environnemental mais sa commercialisation à grande échelle nécessite de relever certains défis économiques et technologiques. Tout d'abord, pour fonctionner, la pile a besoin de systèmes (compresseurs, convertisseurs,...) parfois volumineux et coûteux en énergie. Ensuite, le prix de certains éléments constituants la pile reste élevé car ce sont des produits à haute valeur technologique utilisant des matériaux parfois très onéreux (membrane polymère, couche catalytique,...). L'optimisation du système pile à combustible et des éléments environnants n'est pas le seul défi à relever. En effet, la durabilité des assemblages membrane-électrodes (AME) constitue une barrière majeure à la commercialisation de ces systèmes pour des applications stationnaires ou dans les transports. Afin d'améliorer la durabilité de ces assemblages, il est nécessaire de bien caractériser les différents éléments les constituant et de déterminer et de quantifier les mécanismes de dégradation. Le premier chapitre de cette thèse présente une étude bibliographique sur les PEMFC et l'électrochimie fondamentale régissant le fonctionnement de ces systèmes. Le second chapitre présente les matériaux composant les différents éléments du système ainsi que les méthodes expérimentales utilisées pour caractériser les AME. Le chapitre suivant évoque l'étude et la mise en oeuvre d'une technique électrochimique de caractérisation d'un empilement, notamment la mesure de surface active des différentes cellules. Enfin, le quatrième et dernier chapitre concerne une étude du vieillissement hétérogène d'empilements de trois cellules / Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells are seen as a promising technology for environmentally friendly energy conversion but its wide spread commercialization need taking up several technological and economic challenges. First, to operate PEM fuel cells require sizeable and energy consuming surrounding systems (compressors, converters,...). Then, elements constituting the cell remain costly because with high technological value and using expensive materials (polymer membrane, catalyst layer,...). The optimization of the system and the surrounding elements is not the only challenge to take up. Indeed, durability of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) constitutes the major barrier to commercialization of these systems for stationary or transport applications. In order to increase durability of the assemblies, a better understanding of the aging mechanisms is necessary. The first chapter of the thesis introduces a bibliographical study on PEMFC and the fundamental electrochemistry governing the system operation. The second chapter introduces materials composing the different system elements and experimental methods used for PEMFC characterization. The next chapter deals with a study on stack characterization, particularly the development of an electrochemical technique allowing active surface area measurement of the cells composing the stack. Finally, the last chapter deals with heterogeneous aging within PEMFC stacks