High levels of the amino acid arginine and low levels of the product citrulline in the cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer's patients could mean that there is a decrease in the enzymes that metabolize this amino acid. One such enzyme is neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). In this study, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), sourced from bovine brain was extracted and concentrated using two methods of precipitation: poly (ethylene glycol) 20 000 (PEG) and ammonium sulphate [(NH₄)₂S0₄). These two techniques gave no increase in yield nor fold purification and hence were abandoned in favour of ion exchange chromatography by DEAE-Sepharose. The enzyme was then successfully purified by anion-exchange and after dialysis produced a 38% yield and three fold purification and yielded the highest specific activity of 2.27 U/mg. Neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) was a heterodimeric protein with a total molecular mass of ± 225 kDa (95 and 130 kDa monomers). The temperature and pH optima of the enzyme were 40⁰C and 6.5, respectively. The kinetic parameters (KM and Vmax) of nNOS were 70 μM and 0.332 μmol.min⁻¹, respectively. Moreover neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) was relatively stable at 40⁰C (t½ = 3 h). It was also confirmed that β-amyloid peptides inhibited nNOS when bound to the enzyme and that nNOS behaved as a catalyst in fibril formation through association-dissociation between enzyme and β-amyloid peptide. It was further shown that Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ inhibited nNOS the most with a Ki of 1.92 μM and also had the highest Stern-Volmer value (Ksv) of 0.11 μM⁻¹ indicating tight binding affinity to nNOS and easier accessibility to fluor molecules during binding. Congo red, turbidity, thioflavin-T assays and transmission electron microscopy were successfully used to detect and visualize the presence of fibrils by studying the process of fibrillogenesis. Computerized molecular modeling successfully studied protein dynamics and conformational changes of nNOS. These results correlated with resonance energy transfer (FRET) results which revealed the distance of tryptophan residues from the arginine bound at enzyme active site. Both the aforementioned techniques revealed that in the natural state of the enzyme with arginine bound at the active site, the tryptophan residues (TRP₆₂₅ and TRP₇₂₁) were positioned at the surface of the enzyme 28 Å away from the active site. When the amyloid peptide (Aβ₁₇₋₂₈) was bound to the active site, these same two amino acids moved 14 Å closer to the active site. A five residue hydrophobic fragment Aβ₁₇₋₂₁ [Leu₁₇ - Val₁₈ - Phe₁₉ - Phe₂₀ - Ala₁] within Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ was shown by computer modeling to be critical to the binding of the peptide to the active site of nNOS.

The start of the amyloidogenic pathway in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) begins with the deposition of the Aβ₁₋₄₂ peptide surrounded by astrocytes. High levels of arginine and low amounts of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) are associated with AD. These astrocytes store reserve arginine that is eventually metabolized by nNOS, within the vicinity of the Aβ₁₋₄₂ peptide. We propose the existence of an association vs. dissociation equilibrium between Aβ and nNOS such that nNOS is an amyloidogenic catalyst for fibrils. When Aβ binds to nNOS, it inhibits the activity of the enzyme (association phase). However when the amyloid peptide dissociates into a form that can no longer bind, later deduced as a fibril, the activity is restored. Thus, the interaction of Aβ with nNOS could serve to regulate the interaction between nNOS and arginine by restoring activity of the enzyme but at the same time promoting fibrillogenesis. Given this event occurring with the neuron, both nNOS and amyloid can serve as a biomarker for the early onset of AD. The enzyme nNOS catalyzed the formation of fibrils in the presence of Aβ peptides, while Ag nps were shown to reverse the fibril formation from Aβ peptides more so than Au and curcumin either through electrostatic or π-π stacking (aromatic) influences. Our studies have shown that the fragments of Aβ₁₋₄₂ i.e. the pentapeptide (Aβ₁₇₋₂₁) and the three glycine zipper peptides (Aβ₂₅₋₂₉, Aβ₂₉₋₃₃, Aβ₃₃₋₃₇) and the full length glycine zipper stretch (Aβ₂₅₋₃₇) all inhibited nNOS activity to varying degrees. The peptides Aβ₁₇₋₂₁ and Aβ₂₉₋₃₃ with their respective Ki values of 5.1 μM and 7.5 μM inhibited the enzyme the most. The Ki values for reversed sequenced peptides (Aβ₁₇₋₂₁r and Aβ₂₉₋₃₃r) were two fold greater than that of the original peptides while the Ki values for the polar forms (Aβ₁₇₋₂₁p and Aβ₂₉₋₃₃p) were between 3-4 fold greater than that of the original peptides. It was also found that Ag nps (Ki = 0.12 μM) inhibited the activity of nNOS the most compared to Au nps; (Ki = 0.15 μM) and curcumin (Ki = 0.25 μM). At 298K, all the ligands bound at a single site on the enzyme (n=1) and a single Trp residue (θ =1), (later identified as Trp678) was made available on the enzyme surface for quenching by the ligands. Increasing the temperature from 298K-313K, increased the value of Ksv and pointed to a dynamic quenching mechanism for Aβ peptides, nps and curcumin interaction with nNOS. The positive signs for entropy and enthalpy for all Aβ peptides nps and curcumin pointed to hydrophobic–hydrophobic interaction with the enzyme. The fact that Kd increased with temperature emphasized the endothermic nature of the binding reaction and the requirement of thermal energy to aid in diffusion of the ligand to the active site. It was concluded that the binding reaction between the ligands and nNOS was non-spontaneous and endothermic at low temperatures (+ΔG) but spontaneous at high temperatures (-ΔG). The two amino acids Tyr706 and Trp678 moved from their original positions, subject to ligand binding. Trp678 moved a minimum distance of 5 Å toward the heme while Tyr706 moved a maximum distance of 14 Å away from the heme. AutoDock 4.2 was a valuable tool in monitoring the distance of Trp678 within the enzyme interior and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) was efficient in monitoring the distance moved by Trp residues on the enzyme surface.

Part I Inhibition of Gastric Acid Secretion Fat in the small bowel is a powerful inhibitor of gastric acid secretion. The gastric inhibitory agent(s) liberated from intestinal mucosa by the presence of fat has been named enterogastrone. Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), has been considered a candidate for enterogastrone. GIP is released into the circulation by infusion of fat into the proximal small bowel and inhibits gastric acid secretion under select experimental conditions. It has been proposed that the release of somatostatin, a potent inhibitor of acid secretion, may mediate the gastric inhibitory action of GIP. Recently, monoclonal antibodies raised to both GIP and somatostatin have been produced. The suitability of these antibodies for the study of the physiological roles proposed for their respective peptides is not known. This study examined the inhibitory action of GIP and somatostatin on gastric acid secretion in the rat and in man. GIP was found to be a weak inhibitor of meal-stimulated gastric acid secretion in man when given in supraphysiological doses. When administered at a dose which produces less than the normal maximal physiological plasma level, GIP had little effect on the acid secretory response to the meal and no effect on either plasma gastrin or plasma SLI concentrations. In the rat, infusion of GIP produced a 60% reduction of meal-stimulated acid secretion, independent of changes in serum gastrin release. Intraduodenal infusion of oleic acid in the rat reduced the gastric acid secretory response to a liver extract meal by 80% without affecting serum gastrin levels. A humoral gastric inhibitory agent, or "enterogastrone", was demonstrated in the portal blood of the rat following fat infusion. Intravenous infusion of portal serum, which had been collected during an intraduodenal infusion of fat, reduced meal-stimulated acid secretion in a second animal. A comparison of the inhibition of gastric acid secretion produced by intraduodenal infusion of either glucose or oleic acid with the release of IR-GIP in the portal serum was performed. The inhibitory effect of an intraduodenal fat infusion could not be explained by plasma IR-GIP. The release of GIP was not found to play a significant role in the mechanism for gastric inhibition by intestinal fat. Part II Monoclonal antibodies as Probes of Humoral Inhibitors of Gastric acid secretion The ability of recently produced monoclonal antibodies to block in vivo the inhibitory action of exogenous GIP and somatostatin on gastric acid secretion was examined. Anti-GIP monoclonal antibody demonstrated a high affinity for GIP when compared to the polyclonal rabbit antiserum R07 in the ELISA. When administered either as an intravenous bolus, or after incubation with GIP for 1 hour at 37°C, the antibody was unable to block the inhibitory effect of a GIP infusion on meal-stimulated gastric acid secretion in the rat. Monoclonal antibody 3.65H may not be suitable for the study of the role of endogenously released GIP. Two anti-somatostatin monoclonal antibody clones 58 and 510, when given as intravenous boluses, blocked the inhibitory action of exogenous somatostatin on meal-stimulated gastric acid secretion in the rat. The antibody clone S10 however, had no effect on the inhibitory action of exogenous GIP on gastric acid secretion. Although both monoclonal antibodies S8 and SIO effectively prevented the gastric inhibitory effect of infused somatostatin, the ability to block the physiological action of endogenously released gastric somatostatin remains to be determined. / Surgery, Department of / Medicine, Faculty of / Graduate

Though all the cells of the same cell type in a tissue of a multicellular organism may appear interchangeable, this is not always the case. Throughout an organism’s lifespan, they will encounter many insults that lead to damage or mutation of cells, introducing heterogeneity into otherwise near homogeneous tissues. In the case deleterious heterogeneities, such as cells with decreased ability to grow, it benefits the organism to have fitness sensing mechanisms that can detect these cells and eliminate them. Cell competition was first identified as a mechanism that eliminates slower growing cells possessing ribosomal protein mutations in mosaic tissues with normally growing cells. Since its discovery, cell competition has been found to be induced by numerous genetic differences, including instances where the wild-type cells are eliminated by faster growing cells overexpressing the growth factor Myc, termed Myc super-competition. Though cell competition is primary viewed as a local cell-to-cell signaling event that determines fitness and eliminates less-fit cells, in this dissertation I identify a novel function of the steroid hormone ecdysone as a systemic, restrictive regulator of Myc super-competition in Drosophila. I find that Dilp8-Lgr3 signaling in the central nervous system represses ecdysone biosynthesis to systemically maintain a low-ecdysone, permissible environment for Myc super-competition. In further work that has begun probing how the level of systemic ecdysone prevents neighboring cell populations from undergoing Myc super-competition, I have found that the level of Myc in cells interacts with ecdysone through a variety of mechanisms, including being able to upregulate Dilp8 and downregulate the ecdysone receptor complex. This work lays the foundation for further work to investigate the mechanism by which ecdysone regulates Myc super-competition.

As pesquisas com os peptídeos hormonais de plantas se iniciaram na década de noventa com a descoberta da sistemina. Hoje existem diversos peptídeos identificados, e alguns deles já em avançado estágio de caracterização. O envolvimento desta classe de moléculas em diversas funções básicas e específicas da biologia dos vegetais despertou o interesse da comunidade científica. Dentre os peptídeos em fase de caracterização, destacam-se os representantes da família RALF. Os peptídeos RALF estão presentes em basicamente todo o reino vegetal, desde o musgo Physcomitrela pattens até as plantas superiores mono e dicotiledôneas. A conservação destes peptídeos no reino vegetal sugere um importante papel na fisiologia vegetal, e evidências recentes indicam a participação de RALF em processos básicos do desenvolvimento das plantas. O mecanismo pelo qual o peptídeo RALF atua e é percebido pela célula constitui etapa fundamental para sua caracterização funcional. Para tanto, no presente trabalho foram empregadas técnicas para identificação de proteínas de interação com RALF. Os resultados indicam que este peptídeo possivelmente tem sua atividade regulada pelo íon cálcio, através da interação com uma proteína de ligação a cálcio que, assim como o RALF, é secretada para o apoplasto. Estes dados colocam RALF em um cenário até o momento inédito no mecanismo de ação hormonal em plantas. A exemplo de animais e leveduras, observou-se também que o processamento de RALF ocorre em um sítio dibásico. A mutação de um dos aminoácidos deste sítio foi suficiente para impedir processamento do peptídeo in vivo e in vitro. A utilização de extratos protéicos da fração microsomal de Arabidopsis no ensaio in vitro indica que esta atividade é desempenhada por uma protease presente no sistema de endomembranas celular, provavelmente da classe das convertases. Os resultados publicados marcam o início dos estudos de caracterização do processamento de prohormônios em plantas. / The peptide hormone research has begun during the 90s decade with the systemin discovery. Nowadays several peptides have already been identified, and some of them are further characterized. The involvement of these molecules with a range of basic and specific biological functions has raised the scientific communitys interest. Among the peptides being studied, the RALF family is particularly intriguing. The RALF peptides can be found throughout the plant kingdom, from the moss Physcomitrella patens to the mono and dicot plant groups. The conserved occurrence of these peptides along the plant kingdom suggests an important role in the plant physiology field. Recent evidences indicate that RALF plays a role in basic mechanisms of plant development. The RALF mechanism of action and its perception by the cell are fundamental information in order to characterize this peptide function. In the present work experiments to identify RALF interacting proteins were employed. The results indicate that RALF peptides activity is possibly regulated by the calcium ion. This regulation is mediated by the interaction with a calcium binding protein. This calcium binding protein was found to be secreted to the apoplast. Presented data suggests that RALF is regulated by a mechanism never described before in the plant hormone research field. As previously described in animals and yeast the RALF propeptide processing takes place in a dibasic site. A single amino acid site specific mutation disrupted peptide processing in vivo and in vitro. The correct processing is mediated by proteases of the Arabidopsis microsomal fraction. This processing seems to occur at the endomembrane system, possibly catalized by a convertase class enzyme. The published results points the beginning of the peptide processing studies in plants.

RALFs são peptídeos hormonais de aproximadamente 5kD que regulam negativamente o alongamento celular. Dentre suas atividades biológicas, a alcalinização do meio extracelular e a inibição do alongamento celular são tidas como associadas, pois a acidificação do meio extracelular é necessária para a expansão celular. A atividade de alcalinização e a de inibição do crescimento são medidas em dois ensaios distintos: o ensaio de alcalinização do meio extracelular de células em suspensão e o ensaio do crescimento de raiz primária de plantas jovens. Buscando-se fazer ambas as avaliações da inibição da expansão celular e da alcalinização em um único modelo de estudo, tomou-se como medida da expansão celular o volume das células decantadas (VCD). Quando o tampão MES ou o pré-tratamento com \"Fusicoccin\" foi utilizado para se atenuar o efeito de alcalinização do AtRALF1, verificou-se que o efeito de inibição do alongamento celular não sofreu alteração. Em arabidopsis são encontrados nove peptídeos RALF, que apresentam alta similaridade com o RALF original de tabaco. Com exceção do AtRALF4, todos são capazes de alcalinizar o meio extracelular e inibir raízes. A comparação da estrutura primária do AtRALF4 com os demais RALFs mostra que poucos resíduos são distintos entre eles, sugerindo que estes possam ser os determinantes das atividades de inibição e alcalinização. A alteração de um destes resíduos, AtRALF4(N92A), é capaz de restaurar a capacidade do AtRALF4 de inibir as raízes sem, no entanto, recuperar a atividade de alcalinização. Quando três outros resíduos exclusivos do AtRALF4 foram substituídos pelos seus correspondentes do AtRALF1, observa-se uma restauração parcial da alcalinização, desta vez, sem alterar a capacidade de inibir as raízes. Recentemente, foi mostrado pelo nosso grupo que o peptídeo AtRALF1 induz a expressão de genes relacionados ao rearranjo da parede celular. Quando verificado por PCR quantitativa, contatou-se que somente os peptídeos mutantes que apresentam atividade de inibição do crescimento são capazes de promover uma indução semelhante. Ainda, utilizando gel indicador de pH, verificou-se que plantas transgênicas super-expressando AtRALF1 (35S:AtRALF1) acidificam o meio durante seu crescimento de maneira semelhante a plantas selvagens. O peptídeo de defesa AtPEP1, a exemplo dos peptídeos RALF, também promove a alcalinização do meio extracelular. A utilização de drogas para reproduzir ou atenuar o efeito de alcalinização promovido por este peptídeo sugere que a expressão dos genes responsivos a AtPEP1 também não está relacionada à alteração na atividade das próton-ATPases. Finalmente, quando mutantes para ambos os receptores de AtPEPs foram utilizados (atpepr1/r2) em gel indicador de pH, verificou-se que estes alcalinizam o pH da rizosfera na presença do peptídeo. Nossos dados somados sugerem uma dissociação das atividades biológicas de alcalinização do meio extracelular e de inibição da expansão celular. A alteração na atividade das próton-ATPases pode não ser apenas uma mensagem secundária do efeito biológico, mas sim outra fonte de informação independente e ainda pouco explorada como tal. / RALFs are 5kD peptide hormones that negatively regulates cell expansion. Among the biological activities of the RALF peptide, the extracellular alkalinization and cellular expansion inhibition were previously suggested to be associated, once the extracellular acidification is required to cell expansion. Usually, the alkalinization and cell expansion inhibition activities are evaluated in two different assays, the cell suspension medium alkalinization and the plantlet root growth inhibition. We manage to set an assay in which both cell expansion inhibition and extracellular alkalinization activities could be evaluated. Using the package suspension cell volume through decantation as a value of cell expansion, we evaluated the relation between alkalinization and cell expansion inhibition in different conditions. When the MES buffer or the pre-treatment with Fusicoccin was used to arrest the AtRALF1 extracellular alkalinization, the package cell volume inhibition activity was not affected. There are 9 RALF peptides encoded in arabidopsis plants that are closely related with the first isoform isolated from tobacco. With exception of the AtRALF4, all those isoforms are able to alkalinize the extracellular medium and arrest root growth. Comparing the AtRALF4 with other eight isoforms, we verified that are few different amino acids between them, suggesting that those amino acids could be essential for the biological activities. The rescue of one of those amino acids, AtRALF4(N92A), was able to regain the root growth inhibition activity of the AtRALF4 peptide, although the extracellular alkalinization activity was not restored. When three other AtRALF4 amino acids were substituted by their AtRALF1 correspondent, there is a partial rescue of the extracellular alkalinization activity, but no alterations in the root growth inhibition. We had recently shown that the AtRALF1 peptide induces the expression of genes related to cell wall rearrangement. The quantitative PCR analyses demonstrates that only the mutant peptides that are able to arrest root growth are also able to induce the gene expression. When submitted to a pH indicator, it was verified that AtRALF1 overexpressing plants acidifies it during its growth, as much as wild type plants.The defense peptide AtPEP1, similarly of AtRALF1, also triggers extracellular alkalinization. The use of proton-pump chemical modulators to simulate or arrests AtPEP1 extracellular alkalinization activity suggests that the gene expression of the AtPEP1-responsive genes is not related to changes in plasma membrane proton pump activity. Finally, when double mutants for both the AtPEP1 receptors (atpepr1/r2) were submitted to a pH gel indicator, it was seen that they alkalinize the rhizosphere pH in the presence of the AtPEP1 peptide. Our data suggests that the extracellular alkalinization and arrest of cell expansion activities are dissociated. The proton pump modulation activity may not be only a secondary messenger, but another source of information independent and yet to be explored.

Desde a década de 90, uma nova família de moléculas de origem protéica e com características hormonais vem sendo estudada em plantas. Esse grupo de novas moléculas, coletivamente chamado de peptídeos hormonais, está envolvido com defesa, reprodução, crescimento e desenvolvimento. RALF, que é um desses novos peptídeos, é ubíquo em plantas e está envolvido com desenvolvimento vegetal. Em Arabidopsis existem 34 genes semelhantes ao RALF (AtRALFs). Nosso grupo mostrou que AtRALF1 é processado de um precursor maior por uma subtilase. Arabidopsis possui 56 subtilases, o objetivo deste trabalho é identificar a subtilase responsável pelo processamento do AtRALF1. Predição da localização subcelular e análise da expressão in silico, ambas confirmadas por análise da expressão por RT-PCR e fusões proteicas com a proteína verde fluorescente, permitiram reduzir para sete o número de subtilases candidatas. Cruzamentos entre mutantes nocaute ou plantas de baixa expressão por RNAi dessas sete subtilases com plantas superexpressoras do AtRALF1 identificaram as subtilases AtSBT6.1 (At5g19660) e AtSBT5.3 (At2g04160) como prováveis envolvidas no processamento do prepropeptídeo AtRALF1. / Since the 90s, a new family of molecules of protein origin and with hormone characteristics has been studied in plants. This group of new molecules, collectively named peptide hormones, is involved in defense, reproduction, growth and development. RALF, one of these peptides, is ubiquitous in plants and is involved in plant development. In Arabidopsis there are 34 RALF-like genes (AtRALFs). Our group has shown that AtRALF1 is processed from a larger precursor by a subtilase. Arabidopsis has 56 subtilases, our goal is the identification of the specific subtilase that is responsible for the AtRALF1 processing. Prediction of subcelular localization and in silico gene expression analysis, both confirmed by RT-PCR expression analysis and chimeric proteins with green-fluorescent protein, allowed the reduction of the initial 56 candidates to only 7 subtilases. Crosses between knockout mutants or RNAi plants expressing low levels of subtilases with overexpressors of AtRALF1 identified the subtilases AtSBT6.1 (At5g19660) and AtSBT5.3 (At2g04160) as potentialy involved in the prepropeptide AtRALF1 processing.

Lam, Kwok Lim. / "October 2010." / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 142-173). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

published_or_final_version / abstract / toc / Zoology / Master / Master of Philosophy

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